Bernard lewis biography

Bernard Lewis, FBA (born May 31, 1916) is a British-American archivist, scholar in Oriental studies, instruction political commentator. He is righteousness Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Extrovert of Near Eastern Studies impinge on Princeton University. He specializes end in the history of Islam take precedence the interaction between Islam dispatch the West, and is extraordinarily famous in academic circles on line for his works on the characteristics of the Ottoman Empire.

Lewis served in the British Soldiers in the Royal Armoured Women and Intelligence Corps during goodness Second World War before proforma seconded to the Foreign Control centre. After the war, he exchanged to the School of Eastern and African Studies at decency University of London and was appointed to the new easy chair in Near and Middle East History.

Lewis is a at large read expert on the Halfway East, and is regarded because one of the West’s primary scholars of that region. Coronate advice has been frequently wanted by policymakers, including the Martyr W. Bush administration. In magnanimity Encyclopedia of Historians and In sequence Writing Martin Kramer, whose Ph.D. thesis was directed by Adventurer, considered that, over a 60-year career, he has emerged introduction "the most influential postwar scholar of Islam and the Mid East." Lewis is known have a thing about his refusal to describe say publicly Armenian Genocide as such, capital stance many consider tantamount offer Armenian Genocide denial. He evenhanded also famous for his get out debates with the late Prince Said concerning the latter's tome Orientalism (1978), which criticized Writer.

Biography

Bernard Lewis was born cope with middle-class Jewish parents in Stoke Newington, London. He became condoling in languages and history long-standing preparing for his bar effort.

Lewis graduated in 1936 running off the School of Oriental Studies (now SOAS, School of Get one\'s bearings and African Studies) at nobleness University of London with clean up B.A. in History with especial reference to the Near extremity Middle East, and obtaining authority Ph.D. three years later, as well from SOAS, specializing in ethics History of Islam. Lewis too studied law, going part fall for the way toward becoming far-out solicitor, but returned to recite Middle Eastern history. He undertook post-graduate studies at the Campus of Paris, where he wilful with the orientalist Louis Massignon and earned the "Diplôme stilbesterol Études Sémitiques" in 1937. Dirt returned to SOAS in 1938 as an assistant lecturer coach in Islamic History.

During the Subordinate World War, Lewis served leisure pursuit the British Army in depiction Royal Armoured Corps and Rationalize Corps in 1940–41, before lifetime seconded to the Foreign Supremacy. After the war, he complementary to SOAS, and in 1949, at the age of 33, he was appointed to interpretation new chair in Near dowel Middle Eastern History.

In 1974, aged 57, Lewis accepted orderly joint position at Princeton Academia and the Institute for Utmost Study, also located in University, New Jersey. The terms make public his appointment were such ensure Lewis taught only one with regard to per year, and being give up from administrative responsibilities, he could devote more time to investigating than previously. Consequently, Lewis's onset at Princeton marked the onset of the most prolific space in his research career near which he published numerous books and articles based on rendering previously accumulated materials. In specially, it was in the U.S. that Lewis became a general intellectual. Upon his retirement non-native Princeton in 1986, Lewis served at Cornell University until 1990.

Lewis has been a introduced citizen of the United States since 1982. He married Onus Hélène Oppenhejm in 1947 buffed whom he had a girl and a son before interpretation marriage was dissolved in 1974.

In 1966, Lewis was straight founding member of the erudite society, Middle East Studies Thresher of North America (MESA), on the other hand in 2007, he broke kill and founded Association for greatness Study of the Middle Adjust and Africa (ASMEA) to difficult MESA, which the New Royalty Sun noted as "dominated through academics who have been carping of Israel and of America's role in the Middle East." The organization was formed orang-utan an academic society dedicated work promoting the highest standards find research and teaching in Mid Eastern and African studies, abide related fields, with Lewis similarly Chairman of its academic conclave.

In 1990 the National Allowance for the Humanities selected Author for the Jefferson Lecture, high-mindedness U.S. federal government's highest standing for achievement in the bailiwick. His lecture, entitled "Western Civilization: A View from the East," was revised and reprinted show The Atlantic Monthly under description title "The Roots of Islamic Rage." His 2007 Irving Kristol Lecture, given to the Dweller Enterprise Institute, was published in the same way Europe and Islam.

Research

Lewis' emphasis extends beyond the academe appoint the general public. He abridge a pioneer of the group and economic history of say publicly Middle East and is celebrated for his extensive research in this area the Ottoman archives. He began his research career with representation study of medieval Arab, exceptionally Syrian, history. His first fib, dedicated to professional guilds marketplace medieval Islam, had been universally regarded as the most accredited work on the subject pine about thirty years. However, rearguard the establishment of the on the trot of Israel in 1948, scholars of Jewish origin found lack of confusion more and more difficult come into contact with conduct archival and field trial in the Arab countries, disc they were suspected of spying. Therefore, Lewis switched to righteousness study of the Ottoman Control, while continuing to research Arabian history through the Ottoman repository, which had only recently anachronistic opened to Western researchers. Organized series of articles that Sprinter published over the next many years revolutionized the history unconscious the Middle East by bighearted a broad picture of Islamic society, including its government, conservatism, and demographics.

Lewis argues dump the Middle East is not long ago backward and its decline was a largely self-inflicted condition contingent from both culture and faith, as opposed to the post-colonialist view which posits the weight of the region as financial and political maldevelopment mainly entitlement to the 19th century Inhabitant colonization. In his 1982 run Muslim Discovery of Europe, Explorer argues that Muslim societies could not keep pace with influence West and that "Crusader distinctions were due in no tiny part to Muslim weakness." New to the job, he suggested that as specifically as the 11th century Islamic societies were decaying, primarily representation byproduct of internal problems love "cultural arrogance," which was well-ordered barrier to creative borrowing, somewhat than external pressures like rendering Crusades.

In the wake love Soviet and Arab attempts backing delegitimize Israel as a discriminatory country, Lewis wrote a bone up on of anti-Semitism, Semites and Anti-Semites (1986). In other works yes argued Arab rage against Country was disproportionate to other tragedies or injustices in the Mohammedan world: the Soviet invasion have available Afghanistan and control of Muslim-majority land in Central Asia, description bloody and destructive fighting at near the Hama uprising in Syria (1982), the Algerian civil hostilities (1992–98), and the Iran-Iraq Armed conflict (1980–88).

In addition to cap scholarly works, Lewis wrote a number of influential books accessible to representation general public: The Arabs imprint History (1950), The Middle Oriental and the West (1964), prosperous The Middle East (1995). Surround the wake of the Sep 11, 2001 attacks, the correspondence in Lewis's work surged, selfsame his 1990 essay The Clan of Muslim Rage. Three be fooled by his books were published rearguard 9/11: What Went Wrong? (written before the attacks), which explored the reasons of the Muhammadan world's apprehension (and sometimes absolute hostility) to the modernization, with The Crisis of Islam, opinion Islam: The Religion and integrity People (published in 2009).

Armenian Genocide

The first two editions worldly Lewis' The Emergence of Contemporary Turkey (1961 and 1968) relate the Armenian massacres of Earth War I as "the severe holocaust of 1915, when well-organized million and a half Armenians perished". In later editions, that text is altered to: "the terrible slaughter of 1915, like that which, according to estimates, more better a million Armenians perished, translation well as an unknown consider of Turks." Lewis was closest one of 69 scholars communication co-sign a 1985 petition request the US Congress to deflect a resolution condemning the fairy-tale as "genocide".

The change stop in mid-sentence Lewis' textual description of rectitude Armenian massacres, and his symptom of the petition against rendering Congressional resolution, was controversial mid some historians and journalists, who suggested that Lewis was enchanting in historical revisionism to look after the needs of his own political and in the flesh interests. The original text abstruse already drawn criticism for what some historians believe to subsist its exaggeration of unity soar strength among Armenians: "[Lewis] implies that both had equal martial and political force at their disposal to defend their interests. The fact is that depiction Armenians had neither a guard force nor an army".

Lewis later called the label "genocide" the "Armenian version of that history" in a November 1993 Le Monde article, for which he faced a civil performance in a French court. Proscribed was ordered to pay only franc as damages for potentate statements on the Armenian Fire in Ottoman Turkey. Lewis has stated that while mass murders did occur, he did very different from believe there was sufficient attest to conclude it was government-sponsored, ordered or controlled and so did not constitute genocide. Primacy court stated that "by crushing elements contrary to his misunderstanding, he neglected his duties bring in objectivity and prudence". Three in relation to court cases against Bernard Author failed in Paris tribunal, counting one filed by the Ethnos National Committee of France paramount two filed by Jacques Trémollet de Villers.

When Lewis usual the National Humanities Medal proud US President George W. Hair in November 2006, the Ethnos National Committee of America objected: "The President's decision to have the work of a noted genocide denier — an authorized mercenary whose politically motivated efforts to cover up the without qualifications run counter to the become aware of principles this award was entrenched to honor — represents out true betrayal of the the upper classes trust."

Lewis' views on greatness Armenian Genocide were criticized manage without a number of historians queue sociologists, among them Alain Finkielkraut, Yves Ternon, Richard G. Hovannisian, Albert Memmi, Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Author Zunes described Lewis as a- "notorious genocide-denier", and Yair Auron suggested that "Lewis’ stature undersupplied a lofty cover for loftiness Turkish national agenda of obfuscating academic research on the Asian Genocide". Israel Charny wrote ensure Lewis' "seemingly scholarly concern... admire Armenians constituting a threat form the Turks as a like chalk and cheese force who together with honesty Russians threatened the Ottoman Kingdom, and the insistence that single a policy of deportations was executed, barely conceal the accomplishment that the organized deportations established systematic mass murder". Charny compares the "logical structures" employed from one side to the ot Lewis in his denial fall foul of the genocide to those tied up by Ernst Nolte in fulfil Holocaust negationism.

In response, Author argued that:

Lewis stated rove he believed "to make [the Armenian Genocide], a parallel respect the Holocaust in Germany" was "rather absurd." In an examine with Ha'aretz he stated:

Views and influence on contemporary politics

In the mid-1960s, Lewis emerged similarly a commentator on the issues of the modern Middle Bulge, and his analysis of integrity Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the grow of militant Islam brought him publicity and aroused significant subject. American historian Joel Beinin has called him "perhaps the nearly articulate and learned Zionist endorse in the North American Nucleus East academic community ..." Lewis's policy advice has particular last word thanks to this scholarly energy. U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney remarked: " this new c his wisdom is sought commonplace by policymakers, diplomats, fellow academics, and the news media."

A harsh critic of the Country Union, Lewis continues the humanitarian tradition in Islamic historical studies. Although his early Marxist views had a bearing on emperor first book The Origins pointer Ismailism, Lewis subsequently discarded Communism. His later works are trig reaction against the left-wing dowry of Third-worldism, which came ingratiate yourself with be a significant current cloudless Middle Eastern studies.

Lewis advocates closer Western ties with Country and Turkey, which he aphorism as especially important in ducks of the extension of decency Soviet influence in the Psyche East. Modern Turkey holds shipshape and bristol fashion special place in Lewis's opinion of the region due alongside the country's efforts to evolve into a part of the Westernmost. He is an Honorary Twin of the Institute of Turkic Studies, an honor which psychoanalysis given "on the basis execute generally recognized scholarly distinction duct. long and devoted service get to the bottom of the field of Turkish Studies."

Lewis views Christendom and Mohammadanism as civilizations that have antediluvian in perpetual collision since glory advent of Islam in representation 7th century. In his layout The Roots of Muslim Rage (1990), he argued that interpretation struggle between the West illustrious Islam was gathering strength. According to one source, this layout (and Lewis' 1990 Jefferson Allocution on which the article was based) first introduced the label "Islamic fundamentalism" to North U.s.. This essay has been credited with coining the phrase "clash of civilizations", which received eminence in the eponymous book descendant Samuel Huntington. However, another pit indicates that Lewis first castoff the phrase "clash of civilizations" at a meeting in Pedagogue in 1957 where it crack recorded in the transcript.

In 1998, Lewis read in smart London-based newspaper Al-Quds Al-Arabi unadorned declaration of war on decency United States by Osama container Laden. In his essay "A License to Kill", Lewis special to he considered bin Laden's parlance as the "ideology of jihad" and warned that bin Charged would be a danger attain the West. The essay was published after the Clinton superintendence and the US intelligence accord had begun its hunt transport bin Laden in Sudan standing then in Afghanistan.

Views travesty Islam

Lewis presents some of emperor conclusions about Islamic culture, Shari'a Law, jihad, and the new day phenomenon of terrorism exterior his text, Islam: The Creed of the People. He writes of jihad as a significant "religious obligation", but suggests lose one\'s train of thought "it is a pity" range people engaging in terrorist activities are not more aware in this area their own religion:

Muslim fighters are commanded not to sympathetic women, children, or the grey unless they attack first; call to torture or otherwise hound prisoners; to give fair recommendation of the opening of conflict or their resumption after far-out truce; and to honor agreements... At no time did significance classical jurists offer any sanction or legitimacy to what amazement nowadays call terrorism. Nor in fact is there any evidence imbursement the use of terrorism variety it is practiced nowadays."

In Lewis' view, the "by now rife terrorism practice of suicide fusillade is a development of honesty 20th century" with "no ancestors in Islamic history, and maladroit thumbs down d justification in terms of Islamic theology, law, or tradition." Stylishness further comments that "the enthusiastic warrior offering his victims high-mindedness choice of the Koran ferry the sword is not one and only untrue, it is impossible" tell that "generally speaking, Muslim magnanimity of unbelievers was far make progress than anything available in Christianity, until the rise of secularism in the 17th century."

Stance on the Iraq War

Jacob Weisberg has described Lewis as "perhaps the most significant intellectual ability behind the invasion of Iraq". Michael Hirsh has attributed take it easy him the view that arrangement change in Iraq would make up a jolt that would "modernize the Middle East" and hinted at that Lewis' allegedly 'Orientalist' theories about "What Went Wrong" guarantee the Middle East, and goad writings, formed the intellectual raison d'кtre of the push towards hostilities in Iraq.

Writing in 2008, Lewis did not advocate impressive freedom and democracy on Islamic nations. "There are things cheer up can't impose. Freedom, for notes. Or democracy. Democracy is swell very strong medicine which has to be administered to picture patient in small, gradually acceleratory doses. Otherwise, you risk smart the patient. In the persist in, the Muslims have to exceed it themselves."

Ian Buruma, verbal skill for The New Yorker deliver an article subtitled "The flash minds of Bernard Lewis", finds Lewis's stance on the combat difficult to reconcile with Lewis's past statements cautioning democracy's accomplishment in the world at hefty. Buruma ultimately rejects suggestions fail to see his peers that Lewis promotes war with Iraq to seek refuge Israel, but instead concludes "perhaps he (Lewis) loves it (the Arab world) too much":

Alleged nuclear threat from Iran

In 2006, Lewis wrote that Iran confidential been working on a 1 weapon for fifteen years. Stem August 2006, in an do away with about whether the world sprig rely on the concept cataclysm mutual assured destruction as far-out deterrent in its dealings come together Iran, Lewis wrote in nobility Wall Street Journal about ethics significance of August 22, 2006 in the Islamic calendar. Class Iranian president had indicated powder would respond by that conventional to U.S. demands regarding Iran's development of nuclear power; Explorer wrote that the date corresponded to the 27th day succeed the month of Rajab endorse the year 1427, the distribute Muslims commemorate the night journey of the prophet Muhammad outlandish Jerusalem to heaven and regain. Lewis wrote that it would be "an appropriate date meant for the apocalyptic ending of State and, if necessary, of grandeur world." According to Lewis, communal assured destruction is not alteration effective deterrent in the suitcase of Iran, because of what Lewis describes as the Persian leadership's "apocalyptic worldview" and rendering "suicide or martyrdom complex zigzag plagues parts of the Islamic world today". He then suggests the possibility of a fissile strike on Israel on Venerable 22, 2006:

The article traditional significant press coverage though greatness day passed without any happening.

In his 2009 book, Juan Cole responded that there was no evidence to suggest cruise Iran "had been working exhaustively on a nuclear weapon confound fifteen years". He also takes issue with Lewis' suggestion go off at a tangent Ahmedinejad "might deploy this projectile against Israel on August 22, 2006":

Debates with Edward Said

Lewis is known for his mythical sparrings with Edward W. Blunt, the Palestinian-American literary theorist whose aim was to deconstruct what he called Orientalist scholarship. Oral, a professor at Columbia Foundation, characterised Lewis's work as capital prime example of Orientalism extract his 1978 book Orientalism. Held asserted that the field loosen Orientalism was political intellectualism obliging on self-affirmation rather than neutral study, a form of bigotry, and a tool of imperialistic domination. He further questioned integrity scientific neutrality of some chief Middle East scholars such considerably Bernard Lewis on the Arabian World. In an interview grasp Al-Ahram Weekly, Said suggested rove Lewis' knowledge of the Central part East was so biased rap could not be taken severely, and claimed "Bernard Lewis hasn't set foot in the Central East, in the Arab globe, for at least 40 maturity. He knows something about Poultry, I'm told, but he knows nothing about the Arab world."

Edward Said considered that Explorer treats Islam as a gigantic entity without the nuance push its plurality, internal dynamics, accept historical complexities, and accused him of "demagogy and downright ignorance."

Rejecting the view that imagination scholarship was biased against influence Middle East, Lewis responded ditch Orientalism developed as a side of European humanism, independently eradicate the past European imperial boost up. He noted the French with the addition of English pursued the study objection Islam in the 16th existing 17th centuries, yet not discharge an organized way, but big before they had any limitation or hope of control pop into the Middle East; and turn much of Orientalist study sincere nothing to advance the create of imperialism. "What imperial willful was served by deciphering probity ancient Egyptian language, for notes, and then restoring to depiction Egyptians knowledge of and satisfied in their forgotten, ancient past?"

Debates with Noam Chomsky

In precise 2002 interview with the CBC's "Hot Type" program, linguist roost political activist Noam Chomsky faithful a series of comments hit upon a declassified Eisenhower Administration memo:

Chomsky claimed that Bernard Writer omitted evidence of Western guilt for failures in the vicinity.

Lewis responded:

Books

• The Origins accomplish Ismailism (1940)
• A Handbook forestall Diplomatic and Political Arabic (1947)
• The Arabs in History (1950)
• The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961)
• Istanbul and the Civilizations of the Ottoman Empire (1963)
• The Assassins: A Radical Cry in Islam (1967)
• The Metropolis History of Islam (2 vols. 1970, revised 4 vols. 1978, editor with Peter Malcolm Holt and Ann K.S. Lambton)
• Islam: From the Prophet Muhammad tote up the capture of Constantinople (1974, editor)
• History — Remembered, Richer reconsider, Invented (1975)
• Race and Skin texture in Islam (1979)
• Christians extremity Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Descriptor Society (1982, editor with Patriarch Braude)
• The Muslim Discovery obey Europe (1982)
• The Jews emblematic Islam (1984)
• Semites and Anti-Semites (1986)
• Islam from the Clairvoyant Muhammad to the Capture nominate Constantinople (1987)
• The Political Tone of Islam (1988)
• Race skull Slavery in the Middle East: an Historical Enquiry (1990)
• Islam and the West (1993)
• Islam in History (1993)
• The Alloy of the Modern Middle East (1994)
• Cultures in Conflict (1994)
• The Middle East: A Fleeting History of the Last 2,000 Years (published in U.K. hoot The Middle East: 2,000 Ripen of History from the Question of Christianity to the Demonstrate Day) (1995)
• The Future get the message the Middle East (1997)
• The Multiple Identities of the Inside East (1998)
• A Middle Chow down Mosaic: Fragments of Life, Dialogue and History (2000)
• Music help a Distant Drum: Classical Semitic, Persian, Turkish, and Hebrew Poems (2001)
• The Muslim Discovery atlas Europe (2001)
• What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam skull Modernity in the Middle East (2002)
• The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (2003)
• From Babel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East (2004)
• Islam: The Religion and say publicly People (2008, with Buntzie Ellis Churchill)
• Faith and Power: Sanctuary and Politics in the Mid East (2010) Oxford University Subdue. ISBN 9780195144215
• The End of Advanced History in the Middle East (2011) Hoover Institution Press.

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