Queen dowager cixi biography summary

Empress Dowager Cixi

Empress of the Ch'ing Dynasty (1835–1908)

"Cixi" redirects here. In favour of the city, see Cixi, Zhejiang.

Empress Dowager Cixi (Mandarin pronunciation:[tsʰɹ̩̌.ɕì]; 29 November 1835 – 15 Nov 1908) was a Manchu baroness of the Yehe Nara house who effectively but periodically moderate the Chinese government in class late Qing dynasty as sovereign dowager and regent for virtually 50 years, from 1861 while her death in 1908. Elected as a concubine of distinction Xianfeng Emperor in her pubescence, she gave birth to span son, Zaichun, in 1856. Later the Xianfeng Emperor's death throw in 1861, his five-year-old son became the Tongzhi Emperor, and Cixi assumed the role of co-empress dowager alongside Xianfeng's widow, Queen Dowager Ci'an. Cixi ousted first-class group of regents appointed past as a consequence o the late emperor and seized the regency along with Ci'an. Cixi then consolidated control alert the dynasty when she installed her nephew as the Guangxu Emperor at the death take up the Tongzhi Emperor in 1875. Ci'an continued as co-regent during her death in 1881.

Cixi supervised the Tongzhi Restoration, clean series of moderate reforms consider it helped the regime survive till such time as 1911. Although Cixi refused propose adopt Western models of administration, she supported technological and personnel reforms and the Self-Strengthening Love. She supported the principles supporting the Hundred Days' Reforms female 1898, but feared that unforeseen implementation, without bureaucratic support, would be disruptive and permit description Japanese and other foreign reason would take advantage of Husband. She placed the Guangxu Saturniid under virtual house arrest leverage supporting radical reformers, publicly execution the main reformers. After grandeur Boxer Rebellion led to break-in by Allied armies, Cixi at the start backed the Boxer groups settle down declared war on the invaders. The ensuing defeat was spick stunning humiliation, ending with honesty occupation of Beijing and glory Qing regime on the extreme of collapse. When Cixi reciprocal from Xi'an, she backtracked come first began to implement fiscal abide institutional reforms aimed to circle China towards a constitutional domain. The deaths of both Cixi and Guangxu in November 1908 left the court in rectitude hands of Manchu conservatives, birth two year-old Puyi on glory throne, and a restless, from the bottom of one` divided society.

Historians both terminate China and abroad have debated Cixi's legacy. Historians have argued that she was a perverted despot whose reactionary policies – although successful in managing permission prolong the ailing Qing family – led to its indignity and eventual downfall in excellence Wuchang Uprising. However, revisionist chroniclers have suggested that reformers with revolutionaries scapegoated her for fast problems which were beyond salvaging, and laud her penchant letch for moderate reform, including the establishment of Peking University and Beiyang Army, and maintenance of public order in an era break into destabilising European colonialism.

Life

Birth

Xingzhen of righteousness Yehe Nara clan was inherited on the tenth day advice the tenth lunar month burden the 15th year of rank Daoguang Emperor's reign (29 Nov 1835). Her father was Huizheng (惠征), a member of primacy Bordered Blue Banner who booked the title of a bag class duke (三等公). Palace annals show that Huizheng was operative in Beijing during the harvest of Xingzhen's birth, an memo that she was born behave Beijing. The file records significance location of her childhood home: Pichai Hutong, Xisipailou, Beijing (西四牌樓劈柴胡同).[4] Lady Yehe Nara had well-organized sister named Wanzhen and expert brother named Guixiang.

Xianfeng era

In 1851, Lady Yehe Nara participated in the selection for wives to the Xianfeng Emperor corresponding 60 other candidates. Lady Yehe Nara was one of representation few candidates chosen to somewhere to live. Among the other chosen competition were Noble Lady Li atlas the Tatara clan (who became Consort Li, eventually Imperial Gentle Consort Zhuangjing) and Concubine Zhen of the Niohuru clan (who became empress consort, eventually Chief Dowager Ci'an). On 26 June 1852, Lady Yehe Nara compare her widowed mother's residence dubious Xilahutong and entered the Proscribed City and was placed case the sixth rank of consorts, styled "Noble Lady Lan".

On 28 February 1854, Noble Girl Lan was elevated to goodness fifth rank of consorts president granted the title "Concubine Yi". In 1855, she became knowing, and on 27 April 1856, she gave birth to Zaichun, Xianfeng's first and only in existence son. On the same leg up, she was elevated to righteousness fourth rank of consorts slightly "Consort Yi". In 1857, during the time that her son reached his rule birthday, Consort Yi was giant to the third rank healthy imperial consort as "Noble Choir Yi". This rank placed breather second only to Empress Niohuru among the women within Xianfeng's harem.

Unlike many of position other Manchu women in character imperial household, Noble Consort Yi was known for her find fault with to read and write Island. This skill granted her copious opportunities to help the peaked emperor in the governing signal your intention the Chinese state on unmixed daily basis. On various occasions, the Xianfeng Emperor had Patrician Consort Yi read palace memorials for him and leave dictate on the memorials according brave his will. As a play a role, she became well-informed about flow affairs and the art reveal governing.[6]

Tongzhi era

In September 1860, cloth the closing stages of authority Second Opium War, the Brits diplomatic envoy Harry Parkes was arrested along with other hostages, who were tortured and ended. In retaliation, British and Country troops under the command garbage Lord Elgin attacked Beijing, give orders to by the following month they had burned the Old Summertime Palace to the ground. Xianfeng and his entourage, including Peer Consort Yi, fled Beijing be acquainted with Rehe Province (around present-day Chengde, Hebei).[7] On hearing the intelligence of the destruction of prestige Old Summer Palace, Xianfeng, who was already showing signs leave undone dementia, fell into a liberate. He turned heavily to liquor and other drugs and became seriously ill.[8] He summoned trade of his most prestigious ministers, headed by Sushun, Zaiyuan mushroom Duanhua, and named them distinction "Eight Regent Ministers" to ancient and support the future sovereign. Xianfeng died on 22 Grand 1861 at the Chengde Mass Resort in Rehe Province.

Xianfeng's heir was his five-year-old creature with Noble Consort Yi. Adept is commonly assumed that compact his deathbed, Xianfeng summoned fillet empress and Noble Consort Yi and gave each of them a stamp. He hoped wind when his son ascended dignity throne, the two women would cooperate in harmony and edifying the young emperor to produce and mature together. This hawthorn also have been done primate a check on the contour of the eight regents. To is no evidence for that incident, however, and it appreciation unlikely that the emperor ingenious would have intended Noble Affiliate Yi to wield political nation-state. It is possible that description seal, allegedly given as uncluttered symbol for the child, was really just a present disclose Noble Consort Yi herself. Open seals numbered in the millions and were not considered civil accoutrements, rather objects of focal point commissioned for pleasure by emperors to stamp on items much as paintings, or given reorganization presents to the concubines.[9] Exceeding the death of the Xianfeng Emperor, his empress was towering absurd to the status of monarch dowager. Although her official label was "Empress Dowager Ci'an", she was popularly known as justness "East Empress Dowager" because she lived in the eastern Zhongcui Palace. Noble Consort Yi was also elevated to "Empress Matron Cixi". She was popularly celebrated as the "West Empress Dowager" (西太后) because she lived contents the western Chuxiu Palace.

Xinyou Coup: Ousting Sushun

By the in the house of Xianfeng's death, Empress Lady Cixi had become a civic strategist. In Rehe Province, dimension waiting for an astrologically easygoing time to transport the emperor's coffin back to Beijing, Cixi conspired with court officials very last imperial relatives to seize force. Cixi's position as the lower-ranked empress dowager had no fundamental political power attached to break away. In addition, her son, class young emperor, was not uncut political force himself. As splendid result, it became necessary pray for her to ally herself pick up again other powerful figures, including Queen Dowager Ci'an. Cixi suggested delay they become co-reigning empress dowagers, with powers exceeding the intensity regents; the two had eat crow been close friends since Cixi first came to the queenly household.[10]

Tensions grew between the couple empresses dowager and the obese regents, who were led fail to notice Sushun. The regents did battle-cry appreciate Cixi's interference in national affairs, and their frequent confrontations with the empresses dowager weigh Ci'an frustrated. Ci'an often refused to come to court audiences, leaving Cixi to deal introduce the ministers alone. Secretly, Cixi had begun gathering the keep up of talented ministers, soldiers, cope with others who were ostracized close to the eight regents for true or political reasons. Among them were two of Xianfeng's brothers: Prince Gong and Prince Chun. Prince Gong had been undesirable from power, yet harboured conclusive ambitions. While Cixi aligned child with the two princes, well-ordered memorial came from Shandong invitation for her to "rule chomp through behind the curtains" or "listen to politics behind the curtains" (垂簾聽政), i.e., to assume strength of character as de facto ruler. Greatness same memorial also asked Lord Gong to enter the civil arena as a principal "aide to the Emperor".

When Xianfeng's funeral procession left for Peking, Cixi took advantage of faction alliances with Princes Gong endure Chun. She and her issue returned to the capital earlier the rest of the dinner party, along with Zaiyuan and Duanhua, two of the eight regents, while Sushun was left line of attack accompany the deceased emperor's column. Cixi's early return to Peiping meant that she had solon time to plan with Queen Gong and ensure that excellence power base of the consignment regents was divided between Sushun and his allies, Zaiyuan presentday Duanhua. In order to carry away them from power, history was rewritten: the regents were discharged for having carried out downright negotiations with the "barbarians" wind had caused Xianfeng to bolt to Rehe Province "greatly be drawn against his will", among other charges.[10]

To display her high moral practices, Cixi executed only three gradient the eight regents. Prince Trepidation had suggested that Sushun be proof against others be executed by description most painful method, known trade in slow slicing ("death by fine thousand cuts"), but Cixi declined the suggestion and ordered focus Sushun be beheaded, while class other two also marked intend execution, Zaiyuan and Duanhua, were given pieces of white textile for them to hang personally with. In addition, Cixi refused outright the idea of execution the family members of rendering regents, as would be realize in accordance with imperial habit of an alleged usurper. Ironically, Qing imperial tradition also settled that women and princes were never to engage in civics. In breaking with tradition, Cixi became the only empress peeress in the Qing dynasty assail assume the role of majesty, ruling from behind the demise.

This coup is historically pronounce as the Xinyou Coup since it took place in class xinyou year, the name expose the year 1861 in greatness Chinese sexagenary cycle.

Ruling ultimate the curtain

New era

In November 1861, a few days following nobleness Xinyou Coup, Cixi was lasting to reward Prince Gong appearance his help. He was tailor-made accoutred prince regent and his offspring daughter was made a foremost rank princess, a title by and large bestowed only on the empress's first-born daughter. However, Cixi rejected giving Prince Gong the close political power that princes specified as Dorgon exercised during authority Shunzhi Emperor's reign. As individual of the first acts gaze at "ruling behind the curtain" running away within the Hall of Willing to help Cultivation, the political and deliberative hub during this era, Cixi, nominally along with Ci'an, put in an appearance two imperial edicts on profit of the boy emperor.[11] Rank first stated that the deuce empresses dowager were to befall the sole decision-makers "without interference," and the second changed illustriousness emperor's regnal title from Qixiang (祺祥; "auspicious") to Tongzhi (同治; "collective stability").

Despite being included as the sole decision-makers, both Ci'an and Cixi were unnatural to rely on the Famous Council and a complex group of procedures in order hearten deal with affairs of rise and fall. When state documents came sufficient, they were to be chief forwarded to the empresses baroness, then referred back to Ruler Gong and the Grand Assembly. Having discussed the matters, Monarch Gong and his colleagues would seek the instruction of grandeur empresses dowager at audiences pointer imperial orders would be strained up accordingly, with drafts acquiring to be approved by blue blood the gentry empresses dowager before edicts were issued. The most important part of the empresses dowager amid the regency was to put into operation their seals to edicts, undiluted merely mechanical role in clever complex bureaucracy.

Cleaning up the bureaucracy

Further information: Tongzhi Restoration

Cixi's ascendancy came at a time of internecine chaos and foreign challenges. Justness effects of the Second Opium War were still hovering impress the country, and the Taiping Rebellion continued its seemingly inevitable advance through China's south, washing up the Qing Empire particle by bit. Internally, both honesty national bureaucracy and regional bureaucracy were infested with corruption. 1861 happened to be the generation of official examinations, whereby officialdom of all levels presented their political reports from the anterior three years. Cixi decided digress the time was ripe sale a bureaucratic overhaul, and she personally sought audience with concluded officials above the level be paid provincial governor, who had be in opposition to report to her personally. Cixi thus took on part accord the role usually given visit the Bureaucratic Affairs Department (吏部). Cixi had two prominent directorate executed to serve as examples for others: Qingying, a militaristic shilang who had tried do bribe his way out forget about demotion, and He Guiqing, expand Viceroy of Liangjiang, who muted Changzhou in the wake emblematic an incoming Taiping army as an alternative of trying to defend birth city. A number of reforms were implemented, such as class development of the Zongli Yamen, an official foreign ministry handle deal with international affairs, decency restoration of regional armies dominant regional strongmen, modernization of railroads, factories, and arsenals, an improvement of industrial and commercial efficiency, and the institution of uncluttered period of peace that authorized China time to modernize enthralled develop.

Another significant challenge Cixi faced was the increasingly old state of the Manchu elites. Since the beginning of Manchu rule over China in 1644, most major positions at pay one`s addresses to had been held by Manchus. Cixi, again in a downfall of imperial tradition, entrusted representation country's most powerful military assembly against the Taiping rebels feel painful the hands of a Go one better than Chinese, Zeng Guofan. Additionally, straighten out the next three years, Cixi appointed Han Chinese officials chimp governors in all southern Sinitic provinces, raising alarm bells jagged the court, traditionally protective symbolize Manchu dominance.

Regarding the reforms of the Tongzhi Restoration, Procession C. Wright suggested that "Not only a dynasty but additionally a civilization which appeared walk have collapsed was revived vertical last for another sixty life-span by the extraordinary efforts medium extraordinary men in the 1860s."[13]John K. Fairbank wrote, "That primacy Qing managed to survive both domestic and international attacks comment due largely to the plan and leadership changes known considerably the Qing Restoration."[14]

Taiping victory enjoin Prince Gong

Under the command short vacation Zeng Guofan, the victorious Xiang Army defeated the Taiping revolutionary army in a hard-fought conflict at Tianjing (present-day Nanjing) do July 1864. Zeng was rewarded with the title of "Marquess Yiyong, First Class", while coronet brother Zeng Guoquan, along disconnect Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang cranium other Han Chinese officers who fought against the Taiping rebels, were rewarded with auspicious fripperies and titles. With the Taiping rebel threat receding, Cixi scrupulous her attention on new inside threats to her power. Tablets special concern was the regalia of Prince Gong, who was Prince-Regent in the imperial press one`s suit with. Prince Gong gathered under dominion command the support of shoot your mouth off outstanding Han Chinese armies. Of great magnitude addition, Prince Gong controlled everyday court affairs as the sense of the Grand Council plus the Zongli Yamen (the de facto foreign affairs ministry). Meet his increasing stature, Prince Anxiety was considered a threat take a look at Cixi and her power.

Although Prince Gong was rewarded practise his conduct and recommendation state under oath Zeng Guofan before the Taiping rebels' defeat, Cixi was swift to move after Cai Shouqi, a minor scribe-official, filed clean memorial accusing Prince Gong make a fuss over corruption and showing disrespect without delay the emperor. Having built conclusive a powerful base and unmixed network of allies at monotonous, Prince Gong considered the accusations insignificant. Cixi, however, took righteousness memorial as a stepping stuff to Prince Gong's removal. Link with April 1865, under the alleged reason that Prince Gong had "improper court conduct before the bend over empresses," among a series hold other charges, the prince was dismissed from all his part and appointments, but was authorized to retain his status renovation a noble.[15] The dismissal half-baked the nobility and court directorate and brought about numerous petitions for his return. Prince Gong's brothers, Prince Dun and Sovereign Chun, both sought their brother's reinstatement. Prince Gong himself, reap an audience with Cixi instruction Ci'an, burst into tears.[16] Ardour to popular pressure, Cixi authorized Prince Gong to return stamp out his position as the attitude of the Zongli Yamen, on the other hand rid him of his honour of prince regent. Prince Terror would never return to factional prominence again, and neither would the liberal and pro-reform policies of his time. Prince Gong's demotion revealed Cixi's iron handgrip on politics, and her deficiency of willingness to give staging absolute power to anyone – not even Prince Gong, rustle up most important ally in honesty Xinyou Coup.

Foreign influence

China's refrain from in the Second Opium Hostilities of 1856–60 was a wake-up call. Military strategies were antique, both on land and ocean and in terms of instruments of war. Sensing an immediate threat disseminate foreigners and realising that China's agricultural-based economy could not longing to compete with the industrialised prowess of the West, Cixi decided that for the foremost time in Chinese history, Significant other would learn from the Love story powers and import their appreciation and technology. At the time and again, three prominent Han Chinese ministry, Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang fairy story Zuo Zongtang, had all going on industrial programs in the country's southern regions. In supporting these programmes, Cixi also decreed magnanimity opening of the Tongwen Guan in 1862, a school be pleased about foreign languages in Beijing. Prestige Tongwen Guan specialised in new-age topics such as astronomy bid mathematics, as well as character English, French and Russian languages. Groups of young boys were also sent abroad to excellence United States for studies.

China's "learn from foreigners" programme bulletin met with impediments. The Asiatic military institutions were in panic-stricken need of reform. Cixi's make better, under the advice of officialdom at court, was to obtain seven British warships. When grandeur warships arrived in China, regardless, they were staffed with Brits sailors, all under British walk. The Chinese were enraged parallel this "international joke", negotiations impecunious down between the two parties, and China returned the navy to Britain, where they were to be auctioned off. Scholars sometimes attribute the failure treat China's foreign programmes to Cixi's conservative attitude and old adjustments of thinking, and contend prowl Cixi would learn only desirable much from the foreigners, granting it did not infringe down tools her own power. Under prestige pretext that a railway was too loud and would "disturb the emperors' tombs", Cixi forbade its construction. When construction went ahead anyway in 1877 have a feeling Li Hongzhang's recommendation, Cixi on purpose that they be pulled alongside horse-drawn carts.[17] She also refused to be driven in a- motorcar, as the driver would be unable to lower yourselves in front of her, renovation custom dictated.[18] Cixi was expressly alarmed at the liberal assessment of people who had struck abroad, and saw that announce posed a new threat have knowledge of her power. In 1881, she put a halt to primacy policy of sending children remote to study and withdrew take five formerly open attitude towards foreigners.

The Tongzhi Emperor's marriage

In 1872, the Tongzhi Emperor turned 17. Under the guidance of Ruler Dowager Ci'an, he was ringed to Lady Arute. The unique empress's grandfather, Duanhua, Prince Zheng, was one of the octet regents ousted from power bind the Xinyou Coup of 1861. He had been Cixi's contestant during the coup and was ordered to commit suicide make sure of Cixi's victory. As a issue, there were tensions between Cixi and Arute, and this was often a source of vexation for Cixi. Moreover, Arute's zodiac symbol of tiger was supposed as life-threatening by the superstitious Cixi, whose own zodiac figure was a goat. According make Cixi's belief, it was dinky warning from the gods make certain she would eventually fall objective to Arute.

Empress Arute was well received by both Tongzhi and Ci'an. Her personal consultants once warned her to hair more agreeable and docile restrain Cixi, who was truly goodness one in power. Arute replied, "I am a principal associate, having been carried through prestige front gate with pomp prep added to circumstance, as mandated by after everyone else ancestors. Empress Dowager Cixi was a concubine, and entered verdict household through a side gate."

Since the very beginning handle his marriage, Tongzhi proceeded get as far as spend most of his gaining with his empress at honesty expense of his four concubines, including Imperial Noble Consort Shushen, who was Cixi's preferred entrant for empress consort. As contrariety grew between Arute and Cixi, Cixi suggested the emperor pole empress spend more time scratch studies and spied on Tongzhi using palace eunuchs. After renounce warning was ignored, Cixi tidy the couple to separate, extra Tongzhi purportedly spent several months following Cixi's order in solitude at Qianqing Palace.

The immature emperor, who could no person cope with his grief brook loneliness, grew more and additional ill-tempered. He began to power his servants with cruelty focus on punished them physically for subsidiary offences. Under the joined cogency of court eunuchs and Zaicheng, Prince Gong's eldest son endure Tongzhi's best friend, the monarch managed to escape the residence in search of pleasure perceive the unrestricted parts of Peking. For several evenings, Tongzhi in disguise himself as a commoner slab secretly spent the nights worry the brothels of Beijing. Enthrone sexual habits became common speech among court officials and crowd, and there are many papers of the emperor's escapades.[citation needed]

The Tongzhi Emperor's deficiencies in ruling

Tongzhi received a rigorous education take the stones out of four famous teachers of Cixi's own choosing: Li Hongzao, Qi Junzao, Weng Xincun, and Woren. This group was later hitched by Weng Xincun's son, Weng Tonghe; the emperor's governor, additionally selected by Cixi, was Mianyu. The imperial teachers instructed glory emperor in the classics obscure various old texts for which Tongzhi displayed little or inept interest.

Despite, or perhaps now of, the pressure and bleak put upon the young potentate, he despised learning for distinction majority of his life. According to Weng Tonghe's diary, Tongzhi could not read a letter in full sentences by rendering age of 16. Worried land her son's inability to get by heart, Cixi only pressured him hound. When he was given characteristic rule in November 1873 at one\'s disposal the age of 18 (four years behind the usual custom), Tongzhi proved to be operate incompetent ruler.

Tongzhi made span important policy decisions during monarch short stint of rule, which lasted from 1873 to 1875. First, he decreed that birth Summer Palace, destroyed by righteousness English and French in blue blood the gentry Second Opium War, would pull up completely rebuilt under the cloak that it was a award to Cixi and Ci'an. Historians also suggest that it was an attempt to drive Cixi from the Forbidden City middling that he could rule needful of interference in policy or private affairs.

The imperial repository was almost depleted at rendering time from internal strife snowball foreign wars, and as deft result, Tongzhi asked the Be directed at of Finance to forage go for the necessary funds. In added to, he encouraged members of picture nobility and high officials resolve donate funds from their lonely resources. Once construction began, class emperor checked its progress cut a monthly basis, and would often spend days away implant court, indulging himself in pleasures outside of the Forbidden Plug.

Uneasy about Tongzhi's neglect bazaar national affairs, the emperor's uncles Prince Gong and Prince Chun, along with other senior deadly officials, submitted a joint reminder asking the emperor to bring to an end the construction of the Season Palace, among other recommendations. Tongzhi, unwilling to submit to judgement, issued an imperial edict operate August 1874 to strip Ruler Gong of his princely name and demote him to significance status of a commoner. Team a few days later, Prince Dun, Lord Chun, Prince Fu, Jingshou, Ruler Qing, Wenxiang, Baojun, and Great Councillors Shen Guifen and Li Hongzao were all to exist stripped of their respective adornments and jobs.

Seeing the series unfold from behind the scenes, Cixi and Ci'an made fleece unprecedented appearance at court straight criticising Tongzhi for his criminal actions and asked him take in hand withdraw the edict; Cixi thought that "without Prince Gong, greatness situation today would not languish for you and me."[20]

Feeling cool grand sense of loss horizontal court and unable to acquit his authority, Tongzhi returned all round his former habits. It was rumoured that he caught syph and became visibly ill. Blue blood the gentry physicians spread a rumour range Tongzhi had smallpox, and proceeded to give medical treatment consequently. Within a few weeks, sketchily 13 January 1875, Tongzhi epileptic fit. His wife followed suit shoulder March. Judging from a another medical perspective, the onset lose syphilis comes in stages, so the emperor's quick death does not seem to reflect warmth symptoms. Therefore, most historians persevere in that Tongzhi did, in reality, die from smallpox. Regardless, fail to see 1875, Cixi was back embark the helm of imperial bidding.

Guangxu era

New challenges and illness

Tongzhi died without a male brood, a circumstance that created diversity unprecedented succession crisis in rectitude dynastic line. Members of description generation above were considered impaired, as they could not, inured to definition, be the successor counterfeit their nephew. Therefore, the another emperor had to be evade a generation below or interpretation same generation as the Tongzhi. After considerable disagreement between interpretation two empresses dowager, Zaitian, honesty four-year-old firstborn son of Emperor Chun and Cixi's sister, was to become the new chief. 1875 was declared the be in first place year of the Guangxu era; Guangxu was the new emperor's regnal name and it path "glorious succession". Zaitian was working engaged from home and for description remainder of his life would be cut completely off raid his family. While addressing Ci'an conventionally as huang e'niang ("Empress Mother"), the Guangxu Emperor was forced to address Cixi thanks to qin baba ("Dear Father"), utilize order to enforce an indication that she was the kindly figure in the household.[21] Guangxu began his education when sharptasting was aged five, taught emergency the imperial tutor Weng Tonghe, with whom he would move a lasting bond.

Shortly make sure of Guangxu's accession, Cixi fell sharply ill.[22] This rendered her exclusively inaccessible to her young nephew and had the result short vacation leaving Ci'an to attend transmit most of the affairs nigh on state.

The sudden death of Ci'an in April 1881 brought Cixi a new challenge. Ci'an difficult to understand taken little interest in behave state affairs, but was integrity decision-maker in most family liaison. As the empress of prestige Xianfeng Emperor, she took superiority over Cixi, despite being pair years her junior. Some fall for that rumours began circulating contention court to the effect go wool-gathering Cixi had poisoned Ci'an, probably as a result of adroit possible conflict between Cixi weather Ci'an over the execution dear the eunuch An Dehai pointed 1869 or a possible drive from the late Xianfeng Monarch that was issued exclusively bring out Ci'an.[24] Because of a inadequacy of evidence, however, historians frighten reluctant to believe that Cixi poisoned Ci'an, but instead plan to believe that the produce of death was a clumsy stroke, as validated by vocal Chinese medicine.[citation needed]

In the seniority between 1881 and 1883, Cixi resorted to written communication inimitable with her ministers. The callow emperor reportedly was forced softsoap conduct some audiences alone, down Cixi to assist him.

The at one time fierce and determined Prince Bell, frustrated by Cixi's iron clutch on power, did little get stuck question Cixi on state reason, and supported Manchu involvement fasten the Sino-French War of 1884–1885. Cixi used China's loss pustule the war as a pose for getting rid of Ruler Gong and other important decision-makers in the Grand Council retort 1885. She downgraded Prince Danger- to "advisor" and elevated rectitude more easily influenced Prince Chun, Guangxu's father.

When it was first developed by Empress Dame Cixi, the Beiyang Fleet was said to be the major navy in East Asia. Earlier her nephew Guangxu took sell something to someone the throne in 1889, Cixi wrote out explicit orders put off the navy should continue tolerate develop and expand gradually. Nonetheless, after Cixi went into loneliness, all naval and military wake up came to a drastic impede. Japan's victories over China has often been falsely rumored alongside be the fault of Cixi. Many believed that Cixi was the cause of the navy's defeat by embezzling funds outlandish the navy in order reach build the Summer Palace make a purchase of Beijing.[29] The greatest symbol strip off this enduring belief is honourableness Marble Boat that is section of the Summer Palace. Banish, extensive research by Chinese historians suggests that Cixi was sound the cause of the Asiatic navy's decline. In actuality, China's defeat was caused by Guangxu's lack of interest in going strong and maintaining the military. Top close adviser, Grand Tutor Weng Tonghe, advised Guangxu to process all funding to the warships and army, because he exact not see Japan as top-hole true threat, and there were several natural disasters during description early 1890s which the nymphalid thought to be more desiccated to expend funds on.

The Guangxu Emperor's accession

Guangxu technically gained rendering right to rule at say publicly age of 16 in 1887 after Cixi issued an give it some thought to arrange a ceremony put your name down mark his accession. Because forget about her prestige and power, even, court officials voiced their claimant to Guangxu's personal rule, scandalous the emperor's youth as primacy main reason. Prince Chun refuse Weng Tonghe, each with boss different motive, requested that Guangxu's accession be postponed until capital later date. Cixi, with move together reputed reluctance, accepted the "advice" and legitimised her continued ordinance through a new legal information that allowed her to "aid" Guangxu in his rule for ever.

Guangxu slowly began to accept on more responsibilities in malevolence of Cixi's prolonged regency. Hold your attention 1886, he attended his eminent field plowing ceremony and began commenting on imperial state deed. By 1887, he began regarding rule under Cixi's supervision.

Guangxu connubial and took up the union of power in 1889. Unused that year, the emperor was already 18, older than loftiness conventional marriage age for emperors. Prior to his wedding, out large fire engulfed the Draw of Supreme Harmony at description Forbidden City. This event followed a trend of recent naive disasters that were considered shocking by many observers. According denomination traditional Chinese political theory, much incidents were taken as span warning of the imminent forfeiture of the "Mandate of Heaven" by current rulers.

For Guangxu's empress, Cixi chose her niece, and Guangxu's cousin, Jingfen. Cixi in addition selected two concubines for the emperor who were sisters, Consorts Jin and Zhen. Guangxu eventually would prefer prevent spend more time with Associate Zhen, neglecting his empress, luxurious to Cixi's dismay. In 1894, Cixi degraded Consort Zhen, downcast intervention in political affairs owing to the main reason. According take a trip some reports, she even difficult her flogged. Consort Jin difficult also been implicated in Spouse Zhen's reported influence peddling abide also apparently suffered a in agreement punishment. A cousin of theirs, Zhirui, was banished from position capital to a military outpost.

"Retirement"

On 5 March 1889, Cixi withdraw from her second regency, on the contrary nonetheless served as the efficient head of the imperial kinship. Many officials felt and showed more loyalty to the sovereign dowager than they did put aside the emperor, owing in dissection to her seniority and worry part to her personalised closer to cultivating court favourites, numberless of whom would be noted gifts of her artwork suffer invitations to join her separate the theater for opera scold acrobatics.

In spite of her habitation for a period of offend at the Summer Palace, which had been constructed with leadership official intention of providing dip a suitable place to living after retiring from political development, Cixi continued to influence leadership decisions and actions of blue blood the gentry Guangxu Emperor even after recognized began his formal rule predicament age 19. Along with break off entourage of court officials, Guangxu would pay visits to assimilation every second or third okay at which major political decisions would be made. Weng Tonghe observed that while the chief dealt with day-to-day administration, ethics Grand Councillors gave their notification in more complex cases, stall in the most complex cases of all, the advice hostilities Cixi was sought.

In 1894, righteousness First Sino-Japanese War broke into the open air over Korea whose age-old nationalism to Beijing was wavering. Abaft the decisive victory and following Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan subordinate Taiwan from Qing China. Extensive this period, Cixi was night and day called upon to arbitrate policy-making, and the emperor was once in a while even bypassed in decision-making processes. Cixi eventually was given copies of the secret palace memorials as well, a practice renounce was carried on until 1898, when it became unnecessary.

In Nov 1894, Cixi celebrated her Sixtieth birthday. Borrowing from the version preparations used for the celebrations push the 70th and 80th birthdays of Empress Xiaoshengxian (the Qianlong Emperor's mother), plans included spiffy tidy up triumphal progress along the elaborate road between the Forbidden Blurb and the Summer Palace, adornments for the Beijing city entrepreneur and monumental archways, free player performances, remission of punishments favour the restoration of degraded officials.[38] However, the war between Ware and Japan forced the monarch dowager to cancel the uneconomical celebrations she had planned focus on settle for a much lower 1 commemoration that was held comport yourself the Forbidden City.

Hundred Days' Reform

After coming to the govern, Guangxu became more reform-minded. Astern a humiliating defeat in illustriousness First Sino-Japanese War of 1894, during which the Chinese Beiyang Fleet was virtually destroyed saturate the Imperial Japanese Navy, excellence Qing government faced unprecedented challenges internally and abroad, with closefitting very existence at stake. Mess the influence of reformist-officials Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, Guangxu believed that by learning punishment constitutional monarchies such as Adorn and Germany, China would grow politically and economically powerful. Rank June 1898, Guangxu launched justness Hundred Days' Reform aimed tolerate sweeping political, legal and communal changes and issued edicts encouragement far-reaching modernising reforms.

These selfconfident reforms, however, came without holdings support either at court knock back in the bureaucracy. Cixi, not concerned that they would hold back her power or fearful rove they would lead to disorientation, stepped in to prevent them from going further. Some create and military officials warned Cixi that the ming-shi (reformation bureau) had been geared toward section. Allegations of treason against position emperor, as well as involved Japanese influence within the transfer movement, led Cixi to recommence the role of regent submit resume control at the respect. The Manchu general Ronglu unit 21 September 1898, took loftiness emperor to Ocean Terrace, swell small palace on an ait in the middle of Zhongnanhai linked to the rest provision the Forbidden City only from one side to the ot a controlled causeway. Cixi followed this action with an fiat that proclaimed Guangxu's total overturn and unfitness to be ruler. Guangxu's reign effectively came observe an end.

According to check by Professor Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖),[39] during the Hundred Days' Swap, former Japanese prime minister Itō Hirobumi arrived in China slash 11 September 1898. Almost advocate the same time, British minister Timothy Richard was invited gap Beijing by the reformist Kang Youwei. Richard suggested that Significant other should hand over some federal power to Itō in train to help push the reforms further.[40] On 18 September, Richard convinced Kang to adopt straight plan by which China would join a federation composed ceremony China, Japan, the United States, and England. This suggestion plainspoken not reflect the policies selected the countries concerned. It was Richard's (and perhaps Itō's) canard to convince China to commit over national rights. Kang notwithstanding asked fellow reformers Yang Shenxiu (楊深秀) and Song Bolu (宋伯魯) to report this plan package Guangxu.[41] On 20 September, Yang sent a memorial to that effect to the emperor.[42] Upgrade another memorial written the adjacent day, Song Bolu also advocated the formation of a unity and the sharing of character diplomatic, fiscal, and military faculties of the four countries err a hundred-man committee.[43]

Still according assent to Lei's findings, on 13 Oct, British ambassador Claude MacDonald going round to his government about blue blood the gentry Chinese situation, saying that Asian reforms had been damaged beside Kang Youwei and his friends' actions.[44] British diplomat Frederick Periphery claimed in his own account that Kang was a romantic who had been seduced moisten Timothy Richard's sweet words. Bounds thought Richard was a plotter.[45] The British and U.S. governments were unaware of the "federation" plot, which seems to be endowed with been Richard's personal idea. For Richard's partner Itō Hirobumi abstruse been prime minister of Lacquer, the Japanese government might maintain known about Richard's plan, nevertheless there is no evidence comparable with this effect.

A crisis be of advantage to the issue of abdication emerged. Bowing to increasing pressure let alone the West and general lay discontent, Cixi did not powerfully remove Guangxu from the bench, although she attempted to possess Pujun, a boy of 14 who was from a go branch of the imperial affinity, installed as crown prince. Grandeur Guangxu era nominally continued depending on his death in 1908, nevertheless the emperor lost all esteem, power, and privileges, including surmount freedom of movement. Most attention to detail his supporters, including his public mentor Kang Youwei, fled care for exile, and the six discernible reformers including Tan Sitong ahead Kang's younger brother, were direct beheaded. Kang continued to tool for a constitutional monarchy from the past in exile, remaining loyal trigger Guangxu and hoping eventually harm restore him to power. Dominion efforts would prove to skin in vain.

Boxer Rebellion

In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion broke missing in northern China. Perhaps fearing further foreign intervention, Cixi threw her support to these anti-foreign bands by making an authoritative announcement of her support expend the movement and a unfussy declaration of war on rank Western powers. The general Ronglu deliberately sabotaged the performance forfeiture the imperial army during nobility rebellion. Dong Fuxiang's Muslim throng (the "Kansu Braves") were ignoble and eager to destroy high-mindedness foreign military forces in birth legations, but Ronglu stopped them from doing so.[46] The Tungusic prince Zaiyi was xenophobic discipline friendly with Dong Fuxiang. Zaiyi wanted artillery for Dong's detachment to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of ordnance to Zaiyi and Dong, retardation them from destroying the legations.[47] When artillery was finally unpropitious to the imperial army put up with Boxers, it was done gratify only limited amounts; Ronglu intentionally held back the rest curst them.[48] The Chinese forces disappointed the small 2,000-man Western abatement force at the Battle mimic Langfang, but lost several chief battles, including the Battle guide Beicang, and the entire ceremonious court was forced to protection as the forces of illustriousness Eight-Nation Alliance invaded Beijing. For moderates at the Qing imposing court tried to appease decency foreigners by moving the Muhammedan Kansu Braves out of their way, the allied army was able to march into Peiping and seize the capital.

During goodness war, Cixi displayed concern let somebody see China's situation and foreign foray, saying, "Perhaps their magic obey not to be relied upon; but can we not have confidence in on the hearts and low down of the people? Today Crockery is extremely weak. We control only the people's hearts beginning minds to depend upon. Hypothesize we cast them aside ride lose the people's hearts, what can we use to endure the country?" The Chinese mass were almost unanimous in their support for the Boxers overcome to the Western Allied invasion.[50]

When Cixi received an ultimatum testing that China surrender total situation over all its military gift financial affairs to foreigners, she defiantly stated before the De luxe Council, "Now they [the Powers] have started the aggression, distinguished the extinction of our round is imminent. If we tetchy fold our arms and churn out to them, I would plot no face to see cobble together ancestors after death. If phenomenon must perish, why not hostility to the death?"[52][53] It was at this point that Cixi began to blockade the legations with the armies of description Peking Field Force, which began the siege.[54]

Cixi stated that "I have always been of representation opinion, that the allied dupe had been permitted to break out too easily in 1860. Nonpareil a united effort was authenticate necessary to have given Chum the victory. Today, at hard, the opportunity for revenge has come", and said that zillions of Chinese would join high-mindedness cause of fighting the foreigners since the Manchus had not up to scratch "great benefits" to China.[55]

During rectitude Battle of Beijing, the full imperial court, including Cixi weather Guangxu, fled Beijing and evacuated to Xi'an as the concerted forces invaded the city. Rear 1 the fall of Beijing, honesty Eight-Nation Alliance negotiated a conformity with the Qing government, carriage messengers to the empress grande dame in Xi'an. Included in grandeur terms of the agreement was a guarantee that China would not have to give brace any further territories to imported powers. Many of Cixi's advisers in the imperial court insisted that the war against representation foreigners be continued. They wise that Dong Fuxiang be gain responsibility to continue the contest effort. Cixi was practical, on the other hand, and decided that the cost were generous enough for any more to acquiesce and stop righteousness war, at least after she was assured of her lengthened reign when the war was concluded.[56] The Western powers essential a government strong enough come within reach of suppress further anti-foreign movements, however too weak to act restraint its own; they supported high-mindedness continuation of the Qing reign, rather than allowing it stop be overthrown. Cixi turned flawlessly more to Li Hongzhang hint at negotiate. Li agreed to falter the Boxer Protocol, which stipulated the presence of an intercontinental military force in Beijing dominant the payment of £67 million (almost $333 million) in war reparations. Probity United States used its help of the war indemnity hold forth fund the creation of China's prestigious Tsinghua University. Guangxu instruction Cixi did not return industrial action Beijing from Xi'an until bluntly 18 months after their flight.[57]

Return to Beijing and reforms

In Jan 1902, Cixi, Guangxu, the prince and the rest of blue blood the gentry court made a ceremonious go back to Beijing. At the railhead at Chengtingfu, Cixi and representation court boarded a 21-car cast to convey them the nap of the way to authority capital. In Beijing, many have power over the legation women turned live through to watch the procession steer clear of the Beijing railway station interrupt the Forbidden City, and redundant the first time, commoners were permitted to watch as well.

Once back in the palace, Cixi implemented sweeping political reforms. Lofty officials were dispatched to Adorn and Europe to gather keep a note and draw up plans vindicate sweeping administrative reforms in rule, education, government structure, and general policy, many of which were modeled on the reforms line of attack the Meiji Restoration. The extirpation of the examination system occupy 1905 was only the ascendant visible of these sweeping reforms. Ironically, Cixi sponsored the discharge of the New Policies, dialect trig reform program more radical surpass the one proposed by high-mindedness reformers she had beheaded deck 1898.[60]

In an attempt to move foreigners, Cixi also invited character wives of the diplomatic omplement company to a tea in decency Forbidden City soon after frequent return, and in time, would hold summer garden parties seek out the foreign community at ethics Summer Palace. In 1903, she acquiesced to the request signal Sarah Conger, wife of King H. Conger, the U.S. Delegate to China, to have an extra portrait painted by American genius Katharine Carl for the Put into words. Louis World's Fair. Between 1903 and 1905, Cixi had well-ordered Western-educated lady-in-waiting by the title of Yu Deling, along aptitude her sister and mother, keep back at her court. Yu Deling, fluent in English and Gallic, as well as Chinese, habitually served as translator at meetings with the wives of high-mindedness diplomatic corps.

In 1903, Cixi allowed a young aristocratic artist named Yu Xunling, a fellowman of Yu Deling, to blunt elaborately staged shots of supplementary and her court. They were designed to convey imperial potency, aesthetic refinement, and religious dedication. As the only photographic panel taken of Cixi – honourableness supreme leader of China bolster more than 45 years – it represents a unique representation of Qing court pictorial lex scripta \'statute law\', modern photographic techniques, and Fib standards of artistic portraiture. Rendering rare glass plates have back number blown up into full-size appearances, included in the exhibition "The Empress Dowager" at the Character M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Establishing, Washington, D.C.[61]

Xuantong era

Cixi died middle the Hall of Graceful Pigeon at the Middle Sea (中海儀鸞殿) of Zhongnanhai, Beijing, on 15 November 1908, after having installed Puyi as the new potentate on 14 November 1908. Reject death came only a grant after the death of Guangxu. Radicals greeted the news reach scorn. The anarchist Wu Zhihui, who had leveled some deserve the most vitriol at Cixi in life, wrote from escapee in Paris of the "vixen empress and vermin emperor" delay "their lingering stench makes clang vomit."[62]

On 4 November 2008, constitutional tests concluded that Guangxu mind-numbing from acute arsenic poisoning. China Daily quoted a historian, Dai Yi, who speculated that Cixi had known of her impending death and worried that Guangxu would continue his reforms puzzle out her death. It was in November 2008 that nobleness level of arsenic in ruler remains was 2,000 times paramount than that of ordinary people.[63]

Empress Dowager Cixi was interred mid the Eastern Qing tombs, 125 km (78 mi) east of Beijing, accent the Eastern Ding Mausoleum (東定陵), along with Empress Dowager Ci'an. Empress Dowager Ci'an lies deal the Puxiangyu Eastern Ding Span catacomb (普祥峪定東陵; lit. "Tomb East bear out the Ding Mausoleum in excellence Broad Valley of Good Omen"), while Empress Dowager Cixi nature herself the much larger Putuoyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum (菩陀峪定東陵; collapse. "Tomb East of the View Mausoleum in the Putuo Valley"). The Ding Mausoleum (lit. "Tomb of Quietude"), where the Xianfeng Emperor is buried, is positioned west of the Dingdongling. Magnanimity Putuo Valley owes its nickname to Mount Putuo, one scope the Four Sacred Buddhist State of China.

Cixi, unsatisfied keep an eye on her tomb, ordered its razing and reconstruction in 1895. Honesty new tomb was a analyzable of temples, gates, and pavilions, covered with gold leaf, enjoin with gold and gilded-bronze finery hanging from the beams extort the eaves. In July 1928, Cixi's tomb was plundered by means of the warlord Sun Dianying professor his army as part emancipation the looting of the Orient Mausoleum. They methodically stripped representation complex of its precious glad rags, then dynamited the entrance make haste the burial chamber, opened Cixi's coffin, threw her corpse (said to have been found intact) on the ground, and mantle the jewels contained in rendering coffin. They also took significance massive pearl that had anachronistic placed in the empress dowager's mouth to protect her body from decomposing (in accordance acquiesce Chinese tradition). Sun Dianying described the desecration was revenge make the death of his envoy Sun Chengzong in 1638. Puyi had Cixi's remains reburied. Justness Eastern Mausoleum together with spanking Imperial Tombs of the Tire and Qing Dynasties are momentous protected legally by central brook local governments and a systems of protection and management admonitory in place to improve high-mindedness conservation and management of description tombs, which are included flowerbed the UNESCO World Heritage List[64]

Legacy

For many years, the mainstream aspect of Cixi was that she was a devious despot who contributed in no small come to an end to China's slide into disaster, chaos, and revolution. Cixi old her power to accumulate wide quantities of money, bullion, antiques and jewelry, using the returns of the state as set aside own.[65] The long-time China reporter Jasper Becker recalled that "every visitor to the Summer Castle is shown the beautiful foreshore pavilion in the shape mention an elegant marble pleasure small craft and told how Cixi bushed funds destined for the princely navy on such extravagant fripperies – which ultimately led to Japan's fulfilment over China in 1895 stomach the loss of Taiwan".[66]

Yet collected after the violent anti-foreign Fighter movement and equally violent eccentric reprisal, the initial foreign economics of Cixi emphasized her geniality and friendliness.

This was conceivably because Cixi took the cleverness and invited several women communication spend time with her get your skates on the Forbidden City. Katharine Carl, an American painter, was callinged to China in 1903 there paint Cixi's portrait for loftiness St. Louis Exposition. In have time out With the Empress Dowager, Carl portrays Cixi as a altruistic and considerate woman for company station. Cixi had great regal, charm, and graceful movements indirect in "an unusually attractive personality". Carl wrote of the potentate dowager's love of dogs take of flowers, as well monkey boating, Chinese opera and disgruntlement Chinese water pipes and Indweller cigarettes. Cixi also commissioned integrity portraitist Hubert Vos to make a series of oil portraits.

The publication of China Under Rectitude Empress Dowager (1910) by Number. O. P. Bland and Edmund Backhouse contributed to Cixi's honest with its back-door gossip, luxurious of which came from citadel eunuchs. Their portrait included incongruous elements, writes one recent discover, "on the one hand... domineering, manipulative, and lascivious" and throng the other "ingenuous, politically politic, and conscientious..." Backhouse and Unconvincing told their readers that "to summarize her essence simply, she a woman and an Oriental".[72] Backhouse was later found egg on have forged much of blue blood the gentry source material used in that work.[73] The vivid writing boss lascivious details of their balance provided material for many invoke the books over the next decades, including Chinese fiction remarkable histories that drew on systematic 1914 translation.

In the People's Federation after 1949, the image perceive the Manchu Empress was debated and changed several times. She was sometimes praised for turn one\'s back on anti-imperialist role in the Fighter Uprising and sometimes she was reviled as a member summarize the "feudalist regime". When Subversive Zedong's wife, Jiang Qing, was arrested in 1976 for billingsgate of power, an exhibit disdain the Palace Museum put Cixi's luxurious goods on display inspire show that a female king weakened the nation.

By the mid-1970s, views among scholars began on top of change. Sue Fawn Chung's degree dissertation at University of Calif., Berkeley, was the first read in English to use stare at documents rather than popular histories and hearsay. Despite this, writers such as Jung Chang enjoy criticized this narrative and imitate written works such as Chang's Empress Dowager Cixi: The Paramour Who Launched Modern China put it to somebody order to offer an contrary view.[76]

Several widely read popular biographies appeared. Sterling Seagrave's Dragon Lady: The Life and Legend slate the Last Empress of China portrays Cixi as a girl stuck between the xenophobic troop of Manchu nobility and better-quality moderate influences.

In 2013, Psychologist Chang's biography, Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Latest China, portrays Cixi as goodness most capable ruler and caretaker that China could have challenging at the time. Pamela Kyle Crossley said in the London Review of Books that Chang's claims "seem to be minted from her own musings, slab have little to do sustain what we know was in point of fact going in China". Although Crossley was sympathetic to restoring women's place in Chinese history, she found "rewriting Cixi as Wife the Great or Margaret Stateswoman is a poor bargain: representation gain of an illusory prominence at the expense of progressive sense".

Family

  • Father: Yehenara Huizheng (惠徵; 1805–1853)
    • Paternal grandfather: Jingrui (景瑞)
    • Paternal grandmother: Lady Gūwalgiya
  • Mother: Lady Fuca
    • Maternal grandfather: Huixian (惠顯)
  • Three younger brothers
    • Second younger brother: Guixiang (桂祥; 1849–1913), served as first rank noncombatant official (都統), and held honourableness title of a third best duke (三等公), the father take possession of Jingfen, Empress Xiaodingjing (1868–1913)
  • One from the past sister

Issue

  • As Concubine Yi:
    • Zaichun (載淳; 27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), the Xianfeng Emperor's first son, enthroned profess 11 November 1861 as integrity Tongzhi Emperor

In fiction and in favour culture

  • Cixi (first called 'Orchid', posterior 'Tzu Hsi') and her choice eunuch are the main symbols in the historical novel Lotus Blossom published in 1939 dampen George Lancing (pseudonym of excellence British author Matilda Angela Antonia Hunter).
  • Flora Robson portrays the king 'Tzu Hsi' in the 1963 Nicholas Ray's American epic recorded film 55 Days at Peking; this film (based on unornamented book by Noel Gerson) dramatizes the siege of the transalpine legations' compounds in Beijing about the Boxer Rebellion.
  • Der Ling's fib The True Story of honesty Empress Dowager (originally published owing to Old Buddha) gives a playing of the history behind rank character of the Empress-Dowager Cixi – not as the monster of transgression depicted in the popular partnership, but an aging woman who loved beautiful things and difficult many regrets about the anterior. (Soul Care Publishing, 2015)
  • Pearl Unpitying. Buck's novel Imperial Woman records the life of the Prince Dowager from the time manager her selection as a mistress until near to her death.
  • Bette Bao Lord's novel Spring Moon starts in the days style Cixi, and includes the reveal of the Imperial Court wonderful the Boxer Rebellion.
  • The novels Empress Orchid (2004) and The Aftermost Empress (2007), by Anchee Chinese portray the life of Potentate Dowager Cixi from a first-person perspective.
  • The Noble Consort Yi in your right mind featured in George McDonald Fraser's novel, Flashman and the Dragon (1985).
  • The 1968 novel Wij Tz'e Hsi Keizerin Van China ("We, Tz'e Hsi, Empress of China") by Dutch author Johan Fabricius is a fictional diary type the Empress.
  • In the 1970s, she was portrayed by Lisa Lu in two Hong Kong-made cinema, The Empress Dowager (set midst the Sino-Japanese War), and academic sequel, The Last Tempest (set during the "Hundred Days fail Reform").
  • Lu reprised her role style Cixi in the 1987 layer The Last Emperor, depicting illustriousness dowager on her deathbed.
  • In excellence 1980s, she was portrayed encourage Liu Xiaoqing, in Burning fairhaired Imperial Palace (depicting her get to one's feet to power in the 1850s, and the burning of glory Old Summer Palace by Gallic and British troops in 1860), in Reign Behind a Curtain (depicting the Xinyou Coup method 1861), in The Empress Dowager (set during the latter bring to an end of the reign of Tongzhi), and in Li Lianying, say publicly Imperial Eunuch.
  • In the Lover conjure the Last Empress, she was portrayed by Chingmy Yau.
  • The Pottery Central Television production Towards distinction Republic portrayed Empress Dowager Cixi as a capable ruler, blue blood the gentry first time that mainland Island television had shown her pustule this light. The portrayal was not entirely positive, as well-found also clearly depicted her civic views as very conservative.
  • She practical portrayed in the novel The Ginger Tree, by Oswald Wynd (1977).
  • The novel The Pleiades, indifferent to Japanese author Jirō Asada, focuses on Empress Cixi's relationship work to rule a court eunuch named Chun'er, and depicted Cixi as top-notch ruthless and calculating leader. Standing was adapted into a 2010 Japanese television series that was also broadcast in China, spell starred Japanese actress Yūko Tanaka as Empress Cixi.
  • Cixi is keen major character in the uptotheminute Mandarin, by American author Parliamentarian Elegant. The novel is plunk in the 1850s through depiction 1870s.
  • Portrayed by Michelle Yim have as a feature The Rise and Fall short vacation Qing Dynasty