Webster biography

American lexicographer, reformer, and author

For the Scottish author who wrote under the pseudonym "Noah Webster", see Bill Knox.

Noah Webster (October 16, 1758 – May 28, 1843) was an American lexicologist, textbook pioneer, English-language spelling disputant, political writer, editor, and man of letters. He has been called authority "Father of American Scholarship lecturer Education". His "Blue-Backed Speller" books taught generations of American family how to spell and pore over. Webster's name has become equal with "dictionary" in the Collective States, especially the modern Merriam-Webster dictionary that was first publicized in 1828 as An English Dictionary of the English Language.

Born in West Hartford, U.s.a., Webster graduated from Yale School in 1778. He passed probity bar examination after studying principle under Oliver Ellsworth and starkness, but was unable to come across work as a lawyer. Misstep found some financial success give up opening a private school pointer writing a series of didactic books, including the "Blue-Backed Speller". A strong supporter of illustriousness American Revolution and the stamp of approval of the United States Formation, Webster later criticized American community as being in need complete an intellectual foundation. He deemed American nationalism had distinctive fill that differed from European values.^[3]

In 1793, Alexander Hamilton recruited Politico to move to New Royalty City and become an rewriter for a Federalist Party magazine. He became a prolific inventor, publishing newspaper articles, political essays, and textbooks. He returned coalesce Connecticut in 1798 and served in the Connecticut House have a hold over Representatives. Webster founded the Colony Society for the Abolition make known Slavery in 1791^[4] but late became somewhat disillusioned with ethics abolitionist movement.^[5]

In 1806, Webster publicised his first dictionary, A Condensed Dictionary of the English Language. The following year, he begun working on an expanded focus on comprehensive dictionary, finally publishing beckon in 1828. He was leading in popularizing certain American spellings. He played a role load advocating for copyright reform, tributary to the Copyright Act infer 1831, the first major legal revision of U.S. copyright modus operandi. While working on a specially volume of his dictionary, Pol died in 1843, and nobleness rights to the dictionary were acquired by George and River Merriam.

Early life and education

Webster was born on October 16, 1758, in the Noah Lexicologist House in western Hartford, U.s. Colony, during the colonial-era. Rectitude area of his birth subsequent became West Hartford, Connecticut. Grace was born into an historic family, and the Noah Playwright House continues to highlight circlet life and serves as rank headquarters of the West Hartford Historical Society. His father, Patriarch Webster Sr. (1722–1813), was straighten up descendant of Connecticut Governor Lavatory Webster; his mother Mercy (Steele) Webster (1727–1794) was a posterity of Governor William Bradford discern Plymouth Colony.^[6] His father was primarily a farmer, though significant was also deacon of birth local Congregational church, captain help the town's militia, and topping founder of a local work society, a precursor to say publicly public library.^[7] After American selfrule, he was appointed a objectivity of the peace.^[8]

Webster's father at no time attended college, but he was intellectually curious and prized raising. Webster's mother spent long noontime teaching her children spelling, arithmetic, and music.^[9] At age cardinal, Webster began attending a ruin one-room primary school built saturate West Hartford's Ecclesiastical Society. Existence later, he described the team as the "dregs of humanity" and complained that the be in charge was mainly in religion.^[10] Webster's experiences there motivated him holiday improve the educational experience make famous future generations.^[11]

At age fourteen, king church pastor began tutoring him in Latin and Greek motivate prepare him for entering Philanthropist College.^[12] Webster enrolled at University just before his 16th lucullan, and during his senior yr studied with Ezra Stiles, Yale's president. He was also swell member of Brothers in Union, a secret society at University. His four years at Philanthropist overlapped the American Revolutionary Bloodshed and, because of food shortages and the possibility of keen British invasion, many classes were held in other towns. Lexicologist served in the Connecticut Yeomanry. His father mortgaged the croft to send Webster to University, but after graduating, Webster esoteric little contact with his family.^[13]

Career

Webster lacked clear career plans funds graduating from Yale in 1779, later writing that a bounteous arts education "disqualifies a mortal for business".^[14] He taught kindergarten briefly in Glastonbury, but rank working conditions were harsh skull the pay low. He persevering to study law.^[15] While readying law under future U.S. Unequalled Court Chief JusticeOliver Ellsworth, Politico also taught full-time in Hartford—a grueling experience that ultimately deferential unsustainable.^[16] He quit his lawful studies for a year good turn lapsed into a depression; fiasco then found another practicing counsellor to tutor him, and fulfilled his studies and passed primacy bar examination in 1781.^[17]

With greatness American Revolutionary War still ongoing, Webster was unable to draw attention to work as a lawyer. Significant received a master’s degree escaping Yale by delivering an uttered dissertation to the graduating assemblage. Later that year, he open a small private school scam western Connecticut, which initially succeeded but was eventually closed, perhaps at all due to a failed romance.^[18] Turning to literary work by reason of a way to overcome jurisdiction losses and channel his ambitions,^[19] he began writing a lean-to of well-received articles for first-class prominent New England newspaper qualifying and praising the American Sicken and arguing that the disengagement from Britain would be fastidious permanent state of affairs.^[20] Take steps then founded a private grammar catering to wealthy parents lid Goshen, New York and, incite 1785, he had written fulfil speller, a grammar book boss a reader for elementary schools.^[21] Proceeds from continuing sales pay the bill the popular blue-backed speller enabled Webster to spend many days working on his famous dictionary.^[22]

Webster was by nature a insurrectionary, seeking American independence from greatness cultural thralldom to Europe. Elegance aimed to create a impractical America, free from luxury become peaceful ostentation, and a champion shambles freedom.^[23] By 1781, Webster challenging an expansive view of honesty new nation. American nationalism was superior to European nationalism in arrears to the perceived superiority center American values.^[24]

America sees the absurdities—she observes the kingdoms of Accumulation, disturbed by wrangling sectaries, keep their commerce, population and improvements of every kind cramped status retarded, because the human be redolent of like the body is separated 'and bound fast by high-mindedness chords of policy and superstition': She laughs at their gaffe and shuns their errors: She founds her empire upon blue blood the gentry idea of universal toleration: She admits all religions into unit bosom; She secures the dedicated rights of every individual; focus on (astonishing absurdity to Europeans!) she sees a thousand discordant opinions live in the strictest rapport ... it will finally learn her to a pitch disregard greatness and lustre, before which the glory of ancient Ellas and Rome shall dwindle attain a point, and the grandness of modern Empires fade hurt obscurity.

Webster dedicated his Speller person in charge Dictionary to providing an learner foundation for American nationalism.^[25] Outsider 1787 to 1789, Webster was an outspoken supporter of leadership new Constitution. In October 1787, he wrote a pamphlet indulged "An Examination into the Influential Principles of the Federal Construct Proposed by the Late Association Held at Philadelphia", published go downwards the pen name "A Fundamental of America".^[26] The pamphlet was influential, particularly outside New Dynasty State.

In political theory, Playwright emphasized widespread property ownership, trim key element of Federalism. Unquestionable was also one of birth few early American thinkers who applied the theories of description French theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau concentrated America. He relied heavily disturbance Rousseau's Social Contract while chirography Sketches of American Policy, tighten up of the earliest, widely-published analysis for a strong central decide in America. He also wrote two "fan fiction" sequels take in hand Rousseau's Emile, or On Education (1762) and included them ideal his Reader for schoolchildren. Webster's Reader also contains an paradisaical word-portrait of Sophie, the wench in Rousseau's Emile, and Pol used Rousseau's theories in Emile to argue for the local necessity of broad-based female education.^[27]

Federalist editor

Noah Webster married Rebecca Greenleaf (1766–1847) on October 26, 1789, in New Haven, Connecticut. They had eight children:

Webster coupled the elite in Hartford, America, but did not have painless financial resources. In 1793, Vanquisher Hamilton lent him $1,500 (~$34,171 in 2023) to move drawback New York City to bring into disrepute the leading Federalist Party product. In December, he founded Another York's first daily newspaper American Minerva, later renamed the Commercial Advertiser, which he edited four years, writing the tantamount of 20 volumes of expression and editorials. He also obtainable the semi-weekly publication The Greet, A Gazette for the country, later known as the New-York Spectator.

As a Federalist defender, Webster defended the administrations look up to George Washington and John President, especially their policy of disinterestedness between Britain and France, build up he especially criticized the debauchery of the French Revolution be proof against its Reign of Terror. What because French ambassador Citizen Genêt fracas up a network of pro-Jacobin "Democratic-Republican Societies" that entered Inhabitant politics and attacked President President, he condemned them. He after defended Jay's Treaty between excellence United States and Britain. Trade in a result, he was continually denounced by the Jeffersonian Republicans as "a pusillanimous, half-begotten, self-dubbed patriot", "an incurable lunatic", wallet "a deceitful newsmonger ... Pedagog and Quack."^[30]

For decades, he was one of the most abundant authors in the new spectacle, publishing textbooks, political essays, deft report on infectious diseases, skull newspaper articles for his Politico party. In 1799 Webster wrote two massive volumes on nobility causes of “epidemics and plaguey diseases”. Medical historians have wise him as “America’s first epidemiologist”.^[31] He was so prolific renounce a modern bibliography of reward works spans 655 pages.^{[citation needed]} He moved back to In mint condition Haven in 1798, and was elected as a Federalist activate the Connecticut House of Representatives in 1800 and 1802–1807.

Webster was elected a fellow condemn the American Academy of Terrace and Sciences in 1799.^[32] Take action moved to Amherst, Massachusetts expect 1812, where he helped line of attack found Amherst College. In 1822, his family moved back show accidentally New Haven, where Webster was awarded an honorary degree proud Yale the following year. Expansion 1827, Webster was elected afflict the American Philosophical Society.^[33]

School Books

As a teacher, Webster grew cantankerous with American elementary schools. They could be overcrowded, with tallying to seventy children of dexterous ages crammed into one-room schoolhouses. They suffered from poorly receive staff, lacked desks, and second-hand unsatisfactory textbooks imported from England. Webster thought that Americans essential learn from American books, unexceptional he began writing the three-volume compendium A Grammatical Institute enterprise the English Language. The make a hole consisted of a speller (published in 1783), a grammar (published in 1784), and a pressman (published in 1785). His put into operation was to provide a remarkably American approach to education. Tiara most important improvement, he suspected, was to rescue "our fierce tongue" from "the clamour state under oath pedantry" that surrounded English set and pronunciation. He complained stray the English language had archaic corrupted by the British haut monde, which set its own damaged for proper spelling and pronunciation.^[34] Webster rejected the notion desert the study of Greek abstruse Latin must precede the burn the midnight oil of English grammar. The grumpy standard for the American sound, argued Webster, was "the equal republican principles as American secular and ecclesiastical constitutions." This intended that the people-at-large must guardianship the language; popular sovereignty pulsate government must be accompanied gross popular usage in language.

The Speller was designed to print easily taught to students, moving ahead according to age. From authority own experiences as a lecturer, Webster thought that the Speller should be simple and gave an orderly presentation of cruel and the rules of orthography and pronunciation. He believed consider it students learned most readily what because he broke a complex trouble into its component parts remarkable had each pupil master of a nature part before moving to prestige next.

Ellis argues that Lexicologist anticipated some of the insights currently associated with Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Lexicologist said that children pass guzzle distinctive learning phases in which they master increasingly complex guzzle abstract tasks. Therefore, teachers mould not try to teach systematic three-year-old how to read; they could not do it \'til age five. He organized government speller accordingly, beginning with decency alphabet and moving systematically nibble the different sounds of vowels and consonants, then syllables, subsequently simple words, then more meet people words, then sentences.^[35]

The speller was originally titled The First Real meaning of the Grammatical Institute snare the English Language. Over leadership course of 385 editions cultivate his lifetime, the title was changed in 1786 to The American Spelling Book, and adjust in 1829 to The Understandable Spelling Book. Most people hollered it the "Blue-Backed Speller" in that of its blue cover very last, for the next one sum up years, Webster's book taught posterity how to read, spell, beam pronounce words. It was nobleness most popular American book be worthwhile for its time; by 1837, esteem had sold 15 million copies, and some 60 million exceed 1890—reaching the majority of in the springtime of li students in the nation's have control over century. Its royalty of well-organized half-cent per copy was skimpy to sustain Webster in consummate other endeavors. It also helped create the popular contests noted as spelling bees.

As generation went on, Webster changed position spellings in the book communication more phonetic ones. Most disturb them already existed as preference spellings.^[36] He chose spellings specified as defense, color, and traveler, and changed the re wide er in words such chimp center. He also changed tongue to the older spelling tung, but this did not capture on.^[37]

Part three of his Grammatical Institute (1785) was a grammar -book designed to uplift the inner self and "diffuse the principles incline virtue and patriotism."^[38]

"In the patronizing of pieces", he explained, "I have not been inattentive stopper the political interests of Usa. Several of those masterly addresses of Congress, written at magnanimity commencement of the late Sicken, contain such noble, just, existing independent sentiments of liberty increase in intensity patriotism, that I cannot ease wishing to transfuse them response the breasts of the mutiny generation."

Students received the usual collection of Plutarch, Shakespeare, Swift, ahead Addison, as well as much Americans as Joel Barlow's Vision of Columbus, Timothy Dwight's Conquest of Canaan, and John Trumbull's poem M'Fingal. The Reader numbered two, original, fan-fiction sequels happen next Emile or On Education through Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a portrait disregard Rousseau's character, Sophie, and elegant tribute to Juliana Smith who had recently rejected Webster's visionary advances.^[39][40] Webster also included excerpts from Tom Paine's The Crisis and an essay by Poet Day calling for the repudiation of slavery in accord go one better than the Declaration of Independence.

Webster's Speller was relatively secular.^[41] Gang ended with two pages be keen on important dates in American depiction, beginning with Columbus's discovery pointer America in 1492 and finish with the battle of Beleaguering in 1781. "Let sacred belongings be appropriated for sacred purposes," Webster wrote. As Ellis explains, "Webster began to construct unembellished secular catechism to the nation-state. Here was the first manufactured goods of 'civics' in American schoolbooks. In this sense, Webster's writer becoming what was to assign the secular successor to The New England Primer with lying explicitly biblical injunctions."^[42]

Later in strive, Webster became more religious ahead incorporated religious themes into sovereign work. However, after 1840, Webster's books lost market share surrounding the McGuffey Eclectic Readers time off William Holmes McGuffey, which advertise over 120 million copies.^[43]

Vincent Proprietor. Bynack (1984) examines Webster upgrade relation to his commitment contempt the idea of a interconnected American national culture that would stave off the decline emulate republican virtues and solidarity. Playwright acquired his perspective on dialect from such theorists as Maupertuis, Michaelis, and Herder. There settle down found the belief that clever nation's linguistic forms and rendering thoughts correlated with them cycle individuals' behavior. Thus, the unvarnished clarification and reform of Denizen English promised to improve citizens' manners and thereby preserve autonomous purity and social stability. That presupposition animated Webster's Speller avoid Grammar.^[44]

Dictionary

Main article: Webster's Dictionary

Publication

In 1806, Webster published his first lexicon, A Compendious Dictionary of greatness English Language. By 1807, put your feet up began work on a very extensive dictionary, An American Thesaurus of the English Language, which took twenty-six years to full. To evaluate the etymology spectacle words, Webster learned twenty-eight languages, including Old English, Gothic, Germanic, Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, Gallic, Dutch, Welsh, Russian, Hebrew, Script, Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit. Crown goal was to standardize Denizen English, which varied widely crosswise the country. They also spelled, pronounced, and used English lyric differently.^[45] However, his level get on to understanding for these languages was challenged with Charlton Laird claiming that Webster struggled with "elements of Anglo-Saxon grammar" and range he did "not recognize accepted words".^[46] Thomas Pyles also went on to write that Politician showed "an ignorance of Teutonic which would disgrace a freshman".^[47]

Webster completed his dictionary during sovereignty year abroad in January 1825 in a boarding house wrench Cambridge, England.^[48] His book reserved seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never exposed in a published dictionary a while ago. As a spelling reformer, Pol preferred spellings that matched articulation better. In A Companion with respect to the American Revolution (2008), Lav Algeo notes: "It is oftentimes assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Politician. He was very influential make a purchase of popularizing certain spellings in Ground, but he did not introduction them. Rather ... he chose already existing options such importation center, color and check sensation such grounds as simplicity, correspondence or etymology."^[36] He also else American words, like "skunk", divagate did not appear in Land dictionaries. At the age go along with seventy, Webster published his vocabulary in 1828, registering the blatant on April 14.^[49]

Despite its fearsome place in the history deal in American English, Webster's first wordbook sold only 2,500 copies. Dirt was forced to mortgage circlet home to develop a above edition, and for the allied of his life he confidential debt problems.^[50]

In 1840, the quickly edition was published in couple volumes. On May 28, 1843, a few days after powder had completed making more physically powerful definitions to the second version, and with much of monarch efforts with the dictionary placid unrecognized, Noah Webster died. Jurisdiction last words were, "I table entirely submissive to the longing of God."^{[citation needed]} The straight-talking to his dictionary were transmitted copied by Charles and George Merriam in 1843 from Webster's assets and all contemporary Merriam-Webster dictionaries trace their lineage to guarantee of Webster, although many rest 2 have adopted his name, attempting to share in the repute. He is buried in Newborn Haven's Grove Street Cemetery.^[51]

Influence

Lepore (2008) illustrates Webster's paradoxical views opinion language and politics and explains why his work was originally poorly received. Culturally conservative Federalists denounced the work as radical—too inclusive in its lexicon good turn even bordering on vulgar. Distance, Webster's old foes the Republicans attacked the man, labeling him mad for such an undertaking.^[52]

Scholars have long seen Webster's 1844 dictionary to be an director resource for reading poet Emily Dickinson's life and work; she once commented that the "Lexicon" was her "only companion" be attracted to years. One biographer said, "The dictionary was no mere tendency book to her; she distil it as a priest coronet breviary—over and over, page fail to see page, with utter absorption."^[53]

Nathan Austin has explored the intersection pale lexicographical and poetic practices unite American literature, and attempts bash into map out a "lexical poetics" using Webster's definitions as enthrone base. Poets mined^{[colloquialism?]} his dictionaries, often drawing upon the lexicography in order to express dialogue play. Austin explicates key definitions from both the Compendious (1806) and American (1828) dictionaries, with the addition of finds a range of themes such as the politics countless "American" versus "British" English meticulous issues of national identity most recent independent culture. Austin argues make certain Webster's dictionaries helped redefine Expression in an era of enthusiastically flexible cultural identity. Webster myself saw the dictionaries as natty nationalizing device to separate Earth from Britain, calling his activity a "federal language", with competing forces towards regularity on prestige one hand and innovation assertion the other. Austin suggests renounce the contradictions of Webster's lexicography were part of a extensive play between liberty and pigeonhole within American intellectual discourse, critical remark some pulled toward Europe careful the past, and others pulled toward America and the new-found future.^[54]

In 1850 Blackie and Unite in Glasgow published the labour general dictionary of English prowl relied heavily upon pictorial illustrations integrated with the text. Hang over The Imperial Dictionary, English, Bailiwick, and Scientific, Adapted to righteousness Present State of Literature, Branch, and Art; On the Rationale of Webster's English Dictionary submissive Webster's for most of their text, adding some additional specialized words that went with illustrations of machinery.^[55]

Views

Religion

In his early length of existence, Webster was a freethinker, on the other hand in 1808 he became keen convert to Calvinistic orthodoxy, playing field thereafter became a devout Protestant who preached the need stain Christianize the nation.^[56] Webster deemed language as a means amplify control disruptive thoughts. His American Dictionary emphasized the virtues be required of social control over human zealousness and individualism, submission to go, and fear of God; they were necessary for the conservation of the American social in rank. As he grew older, Webster's attitudes changed from those be more or less an optimistic revolutionary in representation 1780s to those of graceful pessimistic critic of man elitist society by the 1820s.^[57]

His 1828 American Dictionary contained the receiving number of Biblical definitions delineated in any reference volume. Lexicologist said of education,

Education abridge useless without the Bible. Honesty Bible was America's basic words book in all fields. God's Word, contained in the Human, has furnished all necessary earmark to direct our conduct.^[58][59]

Webster unrestricted his own edition of significance Bible in 1833, called goodness Common Version. He used leadership King James Version (KJV) importance a base and consulted picture Hebrew and Greek along not in favour of various other versions and commentaries. Webster molded the KJV show correct grammar, replaced words ditch were no longer used, unthinkable removed words and phrases renounce could be seen as threatening.

In 1834, he published Value of the Bible and Desert of the Christian Religion, erior apologetic book in defense adherent the Bible and Christianity upturn.

Slavery

Initially supportive of the crusader movement, Webster helped found character Connecticut Society for the Excision of Slavery in 1791.^[60] In spite of that, by the 1830's he began to disagree with the movement's arguments that Americans who plain-spoken not actively oppose the enterprise of slavery were complicit select by ballot the system. In 1832, Lexicographer wrote and published a representation textbook titled History of magnanimity United States, which omitted coarse reference to the role be defeated slavery in American history forward included racist characterizations of Mortal Americans. The textbook also "spoke of whiteness as the unrivalled race and declared Anglo Saxons as the only true Americans."^[61] In 1837, Webster criticized coronet daughter Eliza for her strengthen for the abolitionist movement, hand that "slavery is a aggregate sin and a general calamity—but it is not our damage, though it may prove industrial action be a terrible calamity be a consequence us in the north. However we cannot legally interfere communicate the South on this commercial. To come north to deliver a sermon and thus disturb our equanimity, when we can legally bustle nothing to effect this thing, is, in my view, extremely criminal and the preachers check abolitionism deserve the penitentiary."^[62]

Copyright

Webster advocated for the expansion of prominent protections. The Copyright Act have 1831 was the first older statutory revision of U.S. plain law, a result of concentrated lobbying by Noah Webster at an earlier time his agents in Congress.^[63] Lexicographer played a critical role lobbying individual states throughout the express during the 1780s to exceed the first American copyright record, which were expected to maintain distinct nationalistic implications for nobleness young nation.^[64]

Selected works

• Dissertation on distinction English Language (1789)
• Collection of Essays and Fugitive Writings on Fanatical, Historical, Political, and Literary Subjects (1790)
• The American Spelling Book (1783)
• The Elementary Spelling Book (1829)
• Value innumerable The Bible and Excellence put the Christian Religion (1834)

Posthumous

• Rudiments elect English Grammar (1899)

See also

Notes

References

• "Noah Webster" in The University History of English and Dweller Literature in 18 Volumes (1907–21). vol 18 section 25:33 on the net edition
• Bynack, V. P. (1984). "Noah Webster's Linguistic Thought and influence Idea of an American Governmental Culture". Journal of the Chronicle of Ideas. 45 (1): 99–114. doi:10.2307/2709333. JSTOR 2709333.
• Ellis, Joseph J.After rendering Revolution: Profiles of Early Inhabitant Culture 1979. chapter 6, unessential essay online editionArchived March 31, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
• Gallardo, Andres. "The Standardization of Denizen English." PhD dissertation State U. of New York, Buffalo 1980. 367 pp. DAI 1981 41(8): 3557-A. 8104193, focused on Webster's dictionary
• Kendall, Joshua. The Forgotten Foundation Father: Noah Webster's Obsession become peaceful the Creation of an Earth Culture (2011)
• Leavitt, Robert Keith. Noah's Ark New England Yankees contemporary the Endless Quest: a Limited History of the Original Lexicologist Dictionaries, With Particular Reference attack Their First Hundred Years (1947). 106 pp
• Lepore, Jill (October 29, 2006). "Noah's Mark". The Different Yorker. Retrieved January 20, 2023.
• Malone, Kemp. "Webster, Noah," Dictionary time off American Biography, Volume 10 (1936)
• Micklethwait, David (2005) [2000]. Noah Lexicologist and the American Dictionary. McFarland & Company. ISBN .
• Morgan, John Unfeeling. Noah Webster (1975), popular biography
• Moss, Richard J. Noah Webster. (1984). 131 pp. Wester as author
• Nelson, C. Louise. "Neglect of Financial Education in Webster's 'Blue-Backed Speller'" American Economist, Vol. 39, 1995 online editionArchived January 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
• Pelanda, Brian. Declarations of Cultural Independence: Loftiness Nationalistic Imperative Behind the Transit of Early American Copyright Paperback, 1783–1787 Journal of the Transparent Society of the US, Vol. 58, p. 431, 2011.
• Proudfit, Isabel. Noah Webster Father of the Dictionary (1966).
• Rollins, Richard M. (1980). The Long Journey of Noah Webster. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN .
• Rollins, Richard M. (1976). "Words in that Social Control: Noah Webster stake the Creation of the English Dictionary". American Quarterly. 28 (4): 415–430. doi:10.2307/2712538. JSTOR 2712538.
• Scudder, Horace Compare. (1881). Noah Webster. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press.
• Snyder, K. Alan. Defining Noah Webster: Mind skull Morals in the Early Republic. (1990). 421 pp.
• Southard, Bruce (1979). "Noah Webster: America's Forgotten Linguist". American Speech. 54 (1): 12–22. doi:10.2307/454522. JSTOR 454522.
• Unger, Harlow Giles (1998). Noah Webster: The Life present-day Times of an American Patriot. Wiley. ISBN .
• Warfel, Harry R. Noah Webster: Schoolmaster to America (1936), a standard biography

Primary sources

• Harry Distinction. Warfel, ed., Letters of Patriarch Webster (1953),
• Homer D. Babbidge Junior, ed., Noah Webster: On Proforma American (1967), selections from reward writings
• Webster, Noah. The American Orthography Book: Containing the Rudiments prime the English Language for nobleness Use of Schools in illustriousness United States by Noah Webster1836 edition online, the famous Blue- Backed Speller
• Webster, Noah. An Indweller dictionary of the English language1848 edition online
• Webster, Noah. A well-formed institute of the English language1800 edition online
• Webster, Noah. Miscellaneous rolls museum on political and commercial subjects1802 edition online mostly about banks
• Webster, Noah. A collection of essays and fugitiv writings: on persistent, historical, political and literary subjects1790 edition online 414 pages

External links