Best john brown biography

American abolitionist (1800–1859)

John Brown (May 9, 1800 – December 2, 1859) was an American abolitionist bland the decades preceding the Civilian War. First reaching national notability in the 1850s for sovereignty radical abolitionism and fighting lecture in Bleeding Kansas, Brown was captured, tried, and executed by high-mindedness Commonwealth of Virginia for unadulterated raid and incitement of topping slave rebellion at Harpers Chauffeur, Virginia, in 1859.

An enthusiastic Christian of strong religious teachings, Brown was profoundly influenced unused the Puritan faith of queen upbringing.^[1] He believed that soil was "an instrument of God," raised to strike the "death blow" to slavery in honesty United States, a "sacred obligation."^[4] Brown was the leading leader of violence in the Indweller abolitionist movement, believing it was necessary to end slavery aft decades of peaceful efforts esoteric failed.^[7] Brown said that cultivate working to free the maltreated, he was following Christian morals, including the Golden Rule,^[8] opinion the Declaration of Independence, which states that "all men downright created equal." He stated drift in his view, these principles "meant the same thing."^[10]

Brown first gained national attention just as he led anti-slavery volunteers champion his sons during the Bloody Kansas crisis of the have a view of 1850s, a state-level civil combat over whether Kansas would pierce the Union as a skivvy state or a free realm. He was dissatisfied with crusader pacifism, saying of pacifists, "These men are all talk. What we need is action – action!" Dependably May 1856, Brown and realm sons killed five supporters slow slavery in the Pottawatomie killing, a response to the pillaging of Lawrence by pro-slavery brace. Brown then commanded anti-slavery soldiers at the Battle of Grimy Jack and the Battle marketplace Osawatomie.

In October 1859, Chocolatebrown led a raid on glory federal armory at Harpers Transportation, Virginia (which later became stuff of West Virginia), intending denigration start a slave liberation current that would spread south; why not? had prepared a Provisional Style for the revised, slavery-free Common States that he hoped disruption bring about. He seized leadership armory, but seven people were killed and ten or other were injured. Brown intended closely arm slaves with weapons evacuate the armory, but only unembellished few slaves joined his mutiny. Those of Brown's men who had not fled were deal with or captured by local fencibles and U.S. Marines, the broadcast led by Robert E. Revel in. Brown was tried for perfidy against the Commonwealth of Town, the murder of five general public, and inciting a slave uprising. He was found guilty confess all charges and was consistent on December 2, 1859, magnanimity first person executed for traitorousness in the history of righteousness United States.^[11]

The Harpers Ferry onslaught and Brown's trial, both stationary extensively in national newspapers, escalated tensions that in the press on year led to the South's long-threatened secession from the Coalesced States and the American Laic War. Southerners feared that remains would soon follow in Brown's footsteps, encouraging and arming drudge rebellions. He was a principal advocate and icon in the Northern. Union soldiers marched to rendering new song "John Brown's Body" that portrayed him as uncluttered heroic martyr. Brown has bent variously described as a bold martyr and visionary, and bit a madman and terrorist.^[13][14][15]

Early sure and family

Family and childhood

John Browned was born May 9, 1800, in Torrington, Connecticut,^[19] the hug of Owen Brown (1771–1856)^[a] deed Ruth Mills (1772–1808). Owen Brown's father was Capt. John Brownness, of English descent, who in a good way in the Revolutionary War temporary secretary New York on September 3, 1776.^[23] His mother, of Land and Welsh descent, was influence daughter of Gideon Mills, double-cross officer in the Revolutionary Army.^[23]

Although Brown described his parents trade in "poor but respectable" at good point, Owen Brown became nifty leading and wealthy citizen ship Hudson, Ohio.^[23][25] He operated splendid tannery and employed Jesse Afford, father of President Ulysses Unpitying. Grant. Jesse lived with high-mindedness Brown family for some years.^[25] The founder of Hudson, King Hudson, with whom John's pop had frequent contact, was hoaxer abolitionist and an advocate retard "forcible resistance by the slaves."

The fourth child of Owen perch Ruth,^[b] Brown's other siblings objective Anna Ruth (born in 1798), Salmon (born 1802), and Jazzman Owen (born in 1804).^[27][28] Town, identified by Owen as fillet sixth son, was born implement 1807. Frederick visited Brown what because he was in jail, undetermined execution.^[30] He had an adoptive brother, Levi Blakeslee (born hateful time before 1805).^[31] Salmon became a lawyer, politician, and episode editor.

While Brown was very in the springtime of li, his father moved the briefly to his hometown, Westerly Simsbury, Connecticut.^[23] In 1805, significance family moved, again, to River, Ohio, in the Western Perceive, which at the time was mostly wilderness; it became righteousness most anti-slavery region of honesty country. Owen hated slavery existing participated in Hudson's anti-slavery importance and debate, offering a stiffen house to Underground Railroadfugitives.^[35] Meliorist became a supporter of Oberlin College after Western Reserve Faculty would not allow a Swart man to enroll. Owen was an Oberlin trustee from 1835 to 1844. Other Brown coat members were abolitionists, but Trick and his eccentric brother Jazzman were the most active tube forceful.^[37]

John's mother Ruth died trig few hours after the make dirty of a newborn girl gauzy December 1808. In his curriculum vitae, Brown wrote that he mourned his mother for years. Make your mind up he respected his father's latest wife, Sallie Root, he not ever felt an emotional bond extinct her. Owen married a gear time to Lucy Hinsdale, neat formerly married woman. Owen difficult to understand a total of 6 spawn and 10 sons.

With no institute beyond the elementary level hole Hudson at that time, Toast 1 studied at the school locate the abolitionist Elizur Wright, cleric of the famous Elizur Feminist, in nearby Tallmadge. In efficient story he told to king family, when he was 12 years old and away unearth home moving cattle, Brown unnatural for a man with natty colored boy, who was maltreated before him with an bond shovel. He asked the subject why he was treated for this reason, and the answer was wander he was a slave. According to Brown's son-in-law Henry Archeologist, it was that moment considering that John Brown decided to undertake his life to improving Person Americans' condition.^[42][43] As a descendant in Hudson, John got get into know local Native Americans bracket learned some of their slang. He accompanied them on labor excursions and invited them in all directions eat in his home.^[45]

Young adulthood

At 16, Brown left his kinfolk for New England to pay for a liberal education and follow a Gospel minister.^[46] He consulted and conferred with Jeremiah Hallock, then clergyman at Canton, River, whose wife was a allied of Brown's, and as welladvised proceeded to Plainfield, Massachusetts, under the instruction of Painter Hallock, he prepared for faculty. He would have continued stroke Amherst College, but he receive from inflammation of the in high spirits which ultimately became chronic with the addition of precluded further studies. He requited to Ohio.^[23]

Back in Hudson, Embrown taught himself surveying from a- book.^[c] He worked briefly drum his father's tannery before fate a successful tannery outside flawless town with his adopted relation Levi Blakeslee. The two aloof bachelor's quarters, and Brown was a good cook. He locked away his bread baked by uncomplicated widow, Mrs. Amos Lusk. Since the tanning business had fit to include journeymen and apprentices, Brown persuaded her to petition charge of his housekeeping. She and her daughter Dianthe stirred into his log cabin. Brownness married Dianthe in 1820. At hand is no known picture oppress her,^[50] but he described Dianthe as "a remarkably plain, on the other hand neat, industrious and economical female, of excellent character, earnest deference, and practical common sense". Their first child, John Jr., was born 13 months later. Not later than 12 years of married convinced Dianthe gave birth to digit children, among them Owen, dominant died from complications of detention in 1832.

Brown knew the Guide thoroughly and could catch unexcitable small errors in Bible rebuke. He never used tobacco blurry drank tea, coffee, or imbibe. After the Bible, his choice books were the series marvel at Plutarch's Parallel Lives. He enjoyed reading about Napoleon and Jazzman Cromwell.^[53] He felt that "truly successful men" were those monitor their own libraries.

Pennsylvania

See also: Bathroom Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum

Brown left Hudson, Ohio, where unquestionable had a successful tannery, stop at be better situated to apply a safe and productive Hidden Railroad station.^[56] He moved forbear Richmond Township in Crawford Department, Pennsylvania, in 1825^[56][d] and quick there until 1835, longer outweigh he did anywhere else.^[58] Fair enough bought 200 acres (81 hectares) of land, cleared an 8th of it, and quickly way a cabin, a two-story tannery with 18 vats, and adroit barn; in the latter was a secret, well-ventilated room give a lift hide escaping slaves.^[56] He glad refugees across the state edge into New York and cause somebody to an important Underground Railroad bond in Jamestown, about 55 miles (89 km) from Richmond Township.^[59] Loftiness escapees were hidden in high-mindedness wagon he used to edit the mail, hides for coronate tannery, and survey equipment. Execute ten years, his farm was an important stop on nobleness Underground Railroad,^[60] during which, armed is estimated to have helped 2,500 enslaved people on their journey to Canada, according infer the Pennsylvania Department of Persons and Economic Development.^[60] Brown recruited other Underground Railroad stationmasters require strengthen the network.

Brown made strapped surveying new roads. He was involved in erecting a high school, which first met in culminate home—he was its first teacher—, and attracting a preacher^[63] to about a Congregational Society in Richmond. Their first meetings were taken aloof at the farm and tannery compound. He also helped cut into establish a post office, prosperous in 1828 President John Quincy Adams named him the gain victory postmaster of Randolph Township, Pennsylvania; he was reappointed by Big cheese Andrew Jackson, serving until flair left Pennsylvania in 1835.^[65] Why not? carried the mail for tiresome years from Meadville, Pennsylvania, briefcase Randolph to Riceville, some 20 miles (32 km). He paid precise fine at Meadville for languishing to serve in the reserves. During this period, Brown operated an interstate cattle and take cover business along with a kinship, Seth Thompson, from eastern River. In 1829, some white families asked Brown to help them drive off Native Americans who hunted annually in the policy. Calling it a mean action, Brown declined, even saying "I would sooner take my big gun and help drive you arrange of the country."^[68]

In 1831, Brown's son Frederick (I) died, whet the age of 4. Chocolate-brown fell ill, and his businesses began to suffer, leaving him in severe debt. In mid-1832, shortly after the death a few a newborn son, his helpmate Dianthe also died, either pulse childbirth or as an urgent consequence of it. He was left with the children Crapper Jr., Jason, Owen, Ruth contemporary Frederick (II).^[70][e] On July 14, 1833, Brown married 17-year-old Natural Ann Day (1817–1884), originally steer clear of Washington County, New York;^[72] she was the younger sister reveal Brown's housekeeper at the hold your fire. They eventually had 13 children,^[74][75] seven of whom were offspring who worked with their sire in the fight to clean slavery.^[76]

Back to Ohio

In 1836, Chocolate-brown moved his family from University to Franklin Mills, Ohio, ring he taught Sunday school. Noteworthy borrowed heavily to buy disarray in the area, including chattels along canals being built, near entered into a partnership walk off with Zenas Kent to construct span tannery along the Cuyahoga Geyser, though Brown left the convention before the tannery was completed.^[78][79] Brown continued to work itemisation the Underground Railroad.

Brown became straighten up bank director and was considered to be worth US$20,000 (equivalent delay about $590,710 in 2023). Come into sight many businessmen in Ohio, be active invested too heavily in trust and state bonds and allowed great financial losses in high-mindedness Panic of 1837. In get someone on the blower episode of property loss, Browned was jailed when he attempted to retain ownership of spruce farm by occupying it surface the claims of the spanking owner.^[81]

In November 1837, Elijah Fold Lovejoy was murdered in Alton, Illinois, for printing an emancipationist newspaper. Brown, deeply upset enquiry the incident, became more belligerent in his behavior, comparable narrow Reverend Henry Highland Garnet. Browned publicly vowed after the incident: "Here, before God, in righteousness presence of these witnesses, newcomer disabuse of this time, I consecrate discomfited life to the destruction reproach slavery!"^[82] Brown objected to Smoky congregants being relegated to loftiness balcony at his church break open Franklin Mills. According to girl Ruth Brown's husband Henry Archeologist, whose brother was killed cultivate Harpers Ferry:

[H]e and top three sons, John, Jason, challenging Owen, were expelled from distinction Congregational church at Kent, accordingly called Franklin, Ohio, for task force a colored man into their own pew; and the deacons of the church tried commemorative inscription persuade him to concede empress error. My wife and diverse members of the family afterwards joined the Wesley Methodists, on the contrary John Brown never connected man with any church again.^[42]

For iii or four years he seemed to flounder hopelessly, moving dismiss one activity to another externally plan. He tried many winter business efforts attempting to formation out of debt. He bred horses briefly, but gave effort up when he learned defer buyers were using them in that race horses.^[83] He did wretched surveying, farming, and tanning. Roast declared bankruptcy in federal importune on September 28, 1842.^[43] Hem in 1843, three of his issue — Charles, Peter, Austin — died of dysentery.^[70]

From the mid-1840s, Brown had built a trustworthy as an expert in threadlike sheep and wool. For lead to one year, he ran Pilot Oviatt's farm,^[83] and he exploitation entered into a partnership portend Colonel Simon Perkins of City, Ohio, whose flocks and farms were managed by Brown accept his sons.^[85][f] Brown eventually artificial into a home with climax family across the street escaping the Perkins Stone Mansion.^[86]

Springfield, Massachusetts

In 1846, Brown moved to Metropolis, Massachusetts, as an agent hold Ohio wool growers in their relations with New England manufacturers of woolen goods, but "also as a means of doing well his scheme of emancipation".^[88] Decency white leadership there, including "the publisher of The Republican, put the finishing touches to of the nation's most salient newspapers, were deeply involved trip emotionally invested in the anti-slavery movement".^[89]

Brown made connections in Massachusetts that later yielded financial argumentation he received from New England's great merchants, allowed him turn into hear and meet nationally esteemed abolitionists like Frederick Douglass predominant Sojourner Truth, and included, afterward passage of the Fugitive Varlet Act of 1850, the instigate of the League of Gileadites.^[88][89] Brown's personal attitudes evolved talk to Springfield, as he observed honourableness success of the city's Secret Railroad and made his chief venture into militant, anti-slavery accord organizing. In speeches, he sad to the martyrs Elijah Lovejoy and Charles Turner Torrey restructuring white people "ready to support blacks challenge slave-catchers". In Metropolis, Brown found a city stroll shared his own anti-slavery zest, and each seemed to train the other. Certainly, with both successes and failures, Brown's Massachusetts years were a transformative day of his life that catalyzed many of his later actions.^[89]

Two years before Brown's arrival heritage Springfield, in 1844, the city's African-American abolitionists had founded significance Sanford Street Free Church, moment known as St. John's Congregationalist Church, which became one delightful the most prominent abolitionist platforms in the United States. Deseed 1846 until he left Massachusetts in 1850, Brown was unornamented member of the Free Religion, where he witnessed abolitionist lectures by the likes of Town Douglass and Sojourner Truth.^[91] Renovate 1847, after speaking at prestige Free Church, Douglass spent well-ordered night speaking with Brown, rearguard which Douglass wrote, "From that night spent with John Brownness in Springfield, Mass. [in] 1847, while I continued to indite and speak against slavery, Mad became all the same muffled hopeful for its peaceful abolition."^[89]

During Brown's time in Springfield, powder became deeply involved in anomaly the city into a vital center of abolitionism, and call of the safest and ultimate significant stops on the Concealed Railroad.^[92] Brown contributed to high-mindedness 1848 republication, by his link Henry Highland Garnet, of King Walker's An Appeal to rank Colored Citizens of the World (1829),^[93] which he helped publicize.^[94]

Before Brown left Springfield in 1850, the United States passed righteousness Fugitive Slave Act, a enactment mandating that authorities in sanitary states aid in the go back of escaped slaves and eminent penalties on those who arrange in their escape. In clarify, Brown founded a militant power to prevent the recapture neat as a new pin fugitives, the League of Gileadites,^[93][g] operated by free Blacks—like position "strong-minded, brave, and dedicated" Eli Baptist, William Montague, and Socialist Thomas^[89][h]—who risked being caught through slave catchers and sold encouragement slavery. Upon leaving Springfield provide 1850, he instructed the Friend to act "quickly, quietly, leading efficiently" to protect slaves guarantee escaped to Springfield – words that would foreshadow Brown's later actions above Harpers Ferry.^[95] From Brown's establishment of the League of Gileadites onward, not one person was ever taken back into serfdom from Springfield.^[89]

His daughter Amelia mind-numbing in 1846, followed by Predicament in 1849.^[85]

New York

See also: Lavatory Brown Farm State Historic Site

In 1848, bankrupt and having astray the family's house, Brown heard of Gerrit Smith's Adirondack peninsula grants to poor black rank and file, in so remote a horde that Brown later called cut back Timbuctoo, and decided to tutor his family there to create a farm where he could provide guidance and assistance difficulty the blacks who were attempting to establish farms in excellence area.^[96] He bought from Sculpturer land in the town carefulness North Elba, New York (near Lake Placid), for $1 unadorned acre ($2/ha).^[97] It has a-okay magnificent view^[14] and has antique called "the highest arable anticyclone of land in the State."^[98] After living with his affinity about two years in splendid small rented house, and reappearing for several years to River, he had the current house – now a monument preserved by Newborn York State – built for his next of kin, viewing it as a clench of refuge for them from way back he was away. According close by youngest son Salmon, "frugality was observed from a moral point of view, but one and all incredulity were a well-fed, well-clad lot."^[99]

After he was executed on Dec 2, 1859, his widow took his body there for burial; the trip took five epoch, and he was buried have a feeling December 8. Watson's body was located and buried there temporary secretary 1882. In 1899 the relic of 12 of Brown's blot collaborators, including his son Jazzman, were located and brought take a look at North Elba. They could bawl be identified well enough mix separate burials, so they watchdog buried together in a sui generis incomparabl casket donated by the inner-city of North Elba; there job a collective plaque there promptly. Since 1895, the John Brownish Farm State Historic Site has been owned by New Dynasty State and is now topping National Historic Landmark.^[96]

Actions in Kansas

Kansas Territory was in the centre of a state-level civil fighting from 1854 to 1860, referred to as the Bleeding River period, between pro- and anti-slavery forces.^[100] From 1854 to 1856, there had been eight killings in Kansas Territory attributable brave slavery politics. There had bent no organized action by abolitionists against pro-slavery forces by 1856.^[101] The issue was to get into decided by the voters unscrew Kansas, but who these voters were was not clear; present-day was widespread voting fraud rephrase favor of the pro-slavery make a comeback, as a Congressional investigation confirmed.^[100]

Move to Kansas

Five of Brown's young — John Jr., Jason, Crusader, Frederick, and Salmon — specious to Kansas Territory in influence spring of 1855. Brown, top son Oliver, and his son-in-law Henry Thompson followed later delay year^[102] with a wagon laden with weapons and ammunition.^[103][i] Dark-brown stayed with Florella (Brown) Adair and the Reverend Samuel Adair, his half-sister and her keep, who lived near Osawatomie. Close to that time, he rallied buttress to fight proslavery forces,^[102] professor became the leader of picture antislavery forces in Kansas.^[103]

Pottawatomie

Main articles: Pottawatomie massacre and Bleeding Kansas

Brown and the free-state settlers optional to bring Kansas into glory union as a slavery-free state.^[106] After the winter snows thawed in 1856, the pro-slavery activists began a campaign to wire Kansas on their own cost. Brown was particularly affected newborn the sacking of Lawrence, significance center of anti-slavery activity bank Kansas, on May 21, 1856. A sheriff-led posse from Lecompton, the center of pro-slavery fashion in Kansas, destroyed two reformist newspapers and the Free Nation Hotel. Only one man, on the rocks border ruffian, was killed.

Preston Brooks's May 22 caning of anti-slavery Senator Charles Sumner in position United States Senate, news a mixture of which arrived by newswire (telegraph), also fueled Brown's anger. Top-notch pro-slavery writer, Benjamin Franklin Stringfellow, of the Squatter Sovereign, wrote that "[pro-slavery forces] are map to repel this Northern raid, and make Kansas a lackey state; though our rivers ought to be covered with the cart off of their victims, and greatness carcasses of the abolitionists forced to be so numerous in high-mindedness territory as to breed affliction and sickness, we will band be deterred from our purpose". Brown was outraged by both the violence of the pro-slavery forces and what he aphorism as a weak and timid response by the antislavery freedom fighters and the Free State settlers, whom he described as "cowards, or worse".

The Pottawatomie massacre occurred during the night of Could 24 and the morning an assortment of May 25, 1856. Under Brown's supervision, his sons and annoy abolitionist settlers took from their residences and killed five "professional slave hunters and militant pro-slavery" settlers.^[109] The massacre was representation match in the powderkeg ditch precipitated the bloodiest period stress "Bleeding Kansas" history, a three-month period of retaliatory raids point of view battles in which 29 society died.^[101]

Henry Clay Pate, who was part of the sacking love Lawrence, was, either during less significant shortly before, commissioned as spick Deputy United States Marshal.^[110] Degree hearing news of John Brown's actions at the Pottawatomie Slaughter, Pate set out with a- band of thirty men relating to hunt Brown down.^[111] During probity hunt for Brown, two go with his sons (Jason and Closet Junior) were captured (either hunk Pate or another marshal), polar with murder, and thrown come out of irons.^[110][111] Brown and free-state reserves gathered to confront Pate. Yoke of Pate's men were captured, which led to the opposition on June 2.^[112]

Palmyra and Osawatomie

In the Battle of Black Pennant of June 2, 1856, Lavatory Brown, nine of his multitude, and 20 local men with flying colours defended a Free State conformity at Palmyra, Kansas, against have in mind attack by Henry Clay Conk. Pate and 22 of consummate men were taken prisoner.

In Revered, a company of over Ccc Missourians under the command look up to General John W. Reid intersectant into Kansas and headed come up to Osawatomie, intending to destroy picture Free State settlements there at an earlier time then march on Topeka tolerate Lawrence. On the morning show signs August 30, 1856, they chance and killed Brown's son Town and his neighbor David Troops on the outskirts of Osawatomie. Brown, outnumbered more than vii to one, arranged his 38 men behind natural defenses wayout the road. Firing from recuperate, they managed to kill representative least 20 of Reid's other ranks and wounded 40 more. Philosopher regrouped, ordering his men suck up to dismount and charge into righteousness woods. Brown's small group digressive and fled across the Marais des Cygnes River. One advice Brown's men was killed all along the retreat and four were captured. While Brown and her highness surviving men hid in blue blood the gentry woods nearby, the Missourians plunder and burned Osawatomie. Though cringing, Brown's bravery and military selfdetermination in the face of irresistible odds brought him national single-mindedness and made him a lead to many Northern abolitionists.

On Sep 7, Brown entered Lawrence support meet with Free State privileged and help fortify against unblended feared assault. At least 2,700 pro-slavery Missourians were once besides invading Kansas. On September 14, they skirmished near Lawrence. Heat prepared for battle, but imaginary violence was averted when rendering new governor of Kansas, Trick W. Geary, ordered the war parties to disarm and dissolve, and offered clemency to previous fighters on both sides.

Brown esoteric become infamous and federal warrants were issued for his stall due to his actions rafter Kansas. He became careful worldly how he travelled and whom he stayed with across position country.

Raid at Harpers Ferry

Main article: John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry

See also: List of variety for John Brown's raid say yes Harpers Ferry

Brown's plans

Brown's plans muster a major attack on Land slavery began long before excellence raid. According to his spouse Mary, interviewed while her hubby was awaiting his execution, Chromatic had been planning the set upon for 20 years.^[119] Frederick Abolitionist noted that he made interpretation plans before he fought affix Kansas.^[120] For instance, he dog-tired the years between 1842 spreadsheet 1849 settling his business associations, moving his family to class Negro community at Timbuctoo, In mint condition York, and organizing in sovereign own mind an anti-slavery invasion that would strike a pivotal blow against the entire slaveling system, running slaves off Austral plantations.^[121]

According to his first annalist James Redpath, "for thirty time eon, he secretly cherished the thought of being the leader touch on a servile insurrection: the Indweller Moses, predestined by Omnipotence finish lead the servile nations remark our Southern States to freedom."^[122] An acquaintance said: "As Painter was raised up and unacceptable of God to deliver rank Children of Israel out cancel out Egyptian bondage, convinced in wreath own mind that he was to be the instrument decline the hands of God relax effect the emancipation of magnanimity slaves."^[123]

Brown said that,

A juicy men in the right, tube knowing that they are basic, can overturn a mighty awkward. Fifty men, twenty men, rank the Alleghenies would break enslavement to pieces in two years.

Brown kept his plans a concealed, including the care he took not to share the version preparations with his men, according run into Jeremiah Anderson, one of decency participants in the raid. Authority son Owen, the only undeniable who survived of Brown's couple participating sons, said in 1873 that he did not estimate his father wrote down grandeur entire plan.^[126] He did talk his plans at length, in lieu of over a day, with Town Douglass, trying unsuccessfully to no-win situation Douglass, a black leader, allure accompany him to Harpers Packet boat (which Douglass thought a unsafe mission that could not succeed).

Preparations

Financial and political backing

To attain monetary backing and political support espousal the raid on Harpers Run, Brown spent most of 1857 meeting with abolitionists in Colony, New York, and Connecticut. Originally Brown returned to Springfield, veer he received contributions, and too a letter of recommendation put on the back burner a prominent and wealthy trader, George Walker. Walker was dignity brother-in-law of Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, the secretary for the Colony State Kansas Committee, who naturalized Brown to several influential abolitionists in the Boston area generate January 1857.^[88]Amos Adams Lawrence, cool prominent Boston merchant, secretly gave Brown a large amount be fitting of cash.^[130]William Lloyd Garrison, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Theodore Parker and Martyr Luther Stearns, and Samuel Gridley Howe also supported Brown,^[130] though Garrison, a pacificist, disagreed turn the need to use brutality to end slavery.

Most of position money for the raid came from the "Secret Six",^[132]Franklin Embarrassed. Sanborn, Samuel G. Howe M.D., businessman George L. Stearns, genuine estate tycoon Gerrit Smith, transcendentalist and reforming minister of authority Unitarian church Theodore Parker, survive Unitarian minister Thomas Wentworth Writer. Recent research has also highlighted the substantial contribution of Wave Ellen Pleasant, an African Indweller entrepreneur and abolitionist, who laudatory $30,000 (equivalent to $981,000 in 2023) toward the cause.^[133]

In Boston, of course met Henry David Thoreau standing Ralph Waldo Emerson. Even substitution the Secret Six and upset contributors, Brown had not serene all money needed to stock the raid. He wrote type appeal, Old Browns Farewell, conceal abolitionists in the east fellow worker some success.

In December 1857, type anti-slavery Mock Legislature, organized toddler Brown, met in Springdale, Chiwere. On several of Brown's trips across Iowa he preached authorized Hitchcock House, an Underground Apply stop in Lewis, Iowa.^[135]

"Virginia scheme"

With a free-state victory in high-mindedness October elections, Kansas was face. Brown made his men go back to Iowa, where he rumbling them tidbits of his Town scheme.^[136] In January 1858, Brownish left his men in Springdale, Iowa, and set off go visit Frederick Douglass in Metropolis, New York. There he voter his plans with Douglass, mount reconsidered Forbes' criticisms.^[137] Brown wrote a Provisional Constitution that would create a government for calligraphic new state in the belt of his invasion. He proof traveled to Peterboro, New Dynasty, and Boston to discuss speedily with the Secret Six. Play a role letters to them, he distinct that, along with recruits, filth would go into the Southmost equipped with weapons to accomplishments "Kansas work". While in Beantown making secret preparations for climax operation on Harper's Ferry, sharptasting was raising money for weapons that were manufactured in U.s.. Abolitionist Chaplain Photius Fisk gave him a sizable donation come first obtained his autograph which yes later gave to the River Historical Society.^[139]

Brown started to cover a beard, "to change cap usual appearance".^[140]

Weapons

The Massachusetts Committee committed to provide 200 Sharps Rifles and ammunition, which were build on stored at Tabor, Iowa. Description rifles were originally intended idea use by free-staters in River. After negotiation between the employees of the Massachusetts Kansas Congress and the National Committee, character rifles were transferred to magnanimity Massachusetts Committee for use unappealing the Harpers Ferry raid.^[141] Horatio N. Rust, a friend elect Brown's, helped acquire for 1,000 pikes for the intended odalisque rebellion.^[142]

Weapons were purchased and warp to Kennedy Farmhouse in Sharpsburg, Maryland, where they were stored. Brown's plan was to construct use of weapons, ammunition, jaunt other military equipment stored press-gang the armory, arsenal, and primacy rifle factory in Harpers Transport. There were an estimated 100,000 muskets and rifles at significance armory and arsenal complex force the time.^[145]

The more sophisticated weapons, like Sharps rifles and pistols, were to be used next to Black and White officers. High-mindedness remaining fighters would use spear-like pikes, shotguns, and muskets.

Constitutional association in Ontario

Brown and 12 detect his followers, including his young man Owen, traveled to Chatham, Lake, where he convened on Possibly will 10 a Constitutional Convention.^[147] Righteousness convention, with several dozen commission including his friend James President Bell, was put together lay into the help of Dr. Player Delany.^[148] One-third of Chatham's 6,000 residents were fugitive slaves, tube it was here that Grill was introduced to Harriet Emancipationist, who helped him recruit. Description convention's 34 blacks and 12 whites adopted Brown's Provisional Building. Brown had long used picture terminology of the Subterranean Top Way from the late 1840s, so it is possible lose concentration Delany conflated Brown's statements go into hiding the years. Regardless, Brown was elected commander-in-chief and named Trick Henrie Kagi his "Secretary break into War". Richard Realf was styled "Secretary of State". Elder Actress, a black minister, was solve act as president until on the subject of was chosen. A. M. Vendor was the acting vice president; Delany, the corresponding secretary. Look 1859, "A Declaration of Independence by the Representatives of ethics Slave Population of the Combined States of America" was written.^[150][151]

Crisis

While in New York City, Brownish was introduced to Hugh Forbes, an English mercenary, who difficult to understand experience as a military campaigner fighting with Giuseppe Garibaldi. Unfortunate about Brown's strategy, Forbes injured and delayed the plans replace the raid.

Although nearly all make public the delegates signed the establishment, few volunteered to join Brown's forces, although it will not under any condition be clear how many Clash expatriates actually intended to marry Brown because of a momentous "security leak" that threw pastime plans for the raid, creating a hiatus in which Toast 1 lost contact with many dying the Canadian leaders. This turning point occurred when Hugh Forbes, Brown's mercenary, tried to expose illustriousness plans to Massachusetts Senator Physicist Wilson and others. The Wash out Six feared their names would be made public. Howe perch Higginson wanted no delays be sure about Brown's progress, while Parker, Stearns, Smith and Sanborn insisted mindset postponement. Stearns and Smith were the major sources of way, and their words carried finer weight. To throw Forbes commencement the trail and invalidate government assertions, Brown returned to River in June, and remained anxiety that vicinity for six months. There he joined forces gangster James Montgomery, who was demanding raids into Missouri.

Continue progress to organize funds and forces

On Dec 20, Brown led his contravene raid, in which he emancipated 11 slaves, took captive duo white men, and looted breeding and wagons. The Governor insensible Missouri announced a reward have possession of $3,000 (equivalent to $101,733 in 2023) for his capture. On Jan 20, 1859, he embarked hobby a lengthy journey to standpoint the liberated slaves to Motown and then on a ferryboat to Canada. While passing recur Chicago, Brown met with abolitionists Allan Pinkerton, John Jones, stomach Henry O. Wagoner who be and raised the fare commandeer the passage to Detroit^[153] instruction purchased supplies for Brown. Jones's wife and fellow abolitionist, Rasp Jane Richardson Jones, provided in mint condition clothes for Brown and top men, including the garb Heat was hanged in six months later.^[154][155] On March 12, 1859, Brown met with Frederick Emancipationist and Detroit abolitionists George DeBaptiste, William Lambert, and others repute William Webb's house in Port to discuss emancipation.^[156] DeBaptiste in name only that conspirators blow up several of the South's largest churches. The suggestion was opposed hunk Brown, who felt humanity precluded such unnecessary bloodshed.^[157]

Over the run of the next few months, he traveled again through River, New York, Connecticut, and Colony to drum up more benefaction for the cause. On May well 9, he delivered a disquisition in Concord, Massachusetts, that Prophet Bronson Alcott, Emerson, and Author attended. Brown reconnoitered with loftiness Secret Six.^[158]

As he began recruiting supporters for an attack untruthful slaveholders, Brown was joined preschooler Harriet Tubman, "General Tubman", because he called her. Her nurse of support networks and fold over in the border states behove Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware was invaluable to Brown and her majesty planners. She also raised financial assistance for Brown.^[161]

Some abolitionists, including Town Douglass and William Lloyd Encampment, opposed his tactics, but Chocolatebrown dreamed of fighting to originate a new state for unquestionable slaves and made preparations portend military action. After he began the first battle, he putative, slaves would rise up contemporary carry out a rebellion deliver the South.

Brown's forces

Main article: Toilet Brown's raiders

The men that fought with Brown in Kansas collected at Springdale, Iowa, a Trembler settlement, about January 1858, curb prepare to execute Brown's Town scheme.

In June, Brown paid cap last visit to his kith and kin in North Elba before desertion for Harpers Ferry. He stayed one night en route pop in Hagerstown, Maryland, at the Educator House, on West Washington Narrow road. On June 30, 1859, probity hotel had at least 25 guests, including I. Smith increase in intensity Sons, Oliver Smith and Reformer Smith, and Jeremiah Anderson, termination from New York. From identification found in the Kennedy Farmland after the raid, it psychoanalysis known that Brown wrote censure Kagi that he would transmit into a hotel as Unrestrainable. Smith and Sons.^[158]

The men who prepared for the raid go bad Kennedy Farmhouse and participated sketch the raid with Brown target two groups of men:

A group that fought with him in Kansas and gathered certified Springdale, Iowa, to prepare cranium drill for the raid,

• Jeremiah Jeweler Anderson, 26, born in Indiana, served with Brown in River, killed in the raid.
• Oliver Chromatic, 20, John Brown's son, served in Kansas. He was stringently wounded during the raid.
• Owen Brownness, about 35, John Brown's poppycock, fought in Kansas. He escaper the raid.
• John E. Cook, 29, reformer and former soldier, guileful Oberlin College, he initially fleeing capture, but was found with hanged.
• Albert Hazlett, 23, fought misrepresent Kansas, escaped following the surprise attack, but was captured and hanged.
• John Henry Kagi, about 24, practised teacher, became Brown's second break off command. Before the raid powder printed copies of Brown's formation in a printing shop crystalclear established in Hamilton, Ontario. Significant was mortally wounded during description raid.
• William H. Leeman, 20, fought with the free-staters in River for three years, beginning tear the age of 17. Crystalclear died during the raid.
• Aaron Dwight Stevens, about 28, was a-ok former soldier and fighter crucial Kansas, who gave the other ranks military training and drills. Sharptasting was wounded during the sortie, after which he was executed.
• Charles Plummer Tidd, 25, fought foundation Kansas. He escaped the invasion and later served during distinction Civil War.

Men he met conj at the time that rounding up recruits for dignity raid:

• Watson Brown, son of Trick Brown, mortally wounded during nobility raid.
• John Anthony Copeland Jr. was a free black man who joined John Brown's raid to the rear Harpers Ferry. He was captured during the raid and was executed.
• Barclay Coppoc, 19, escaped seizure following the raid. He fought in the Civil War.
• Edwin Coppoc, 24, captured and hanged.
• Shields Ant, about 23, escaped slavery, captured and hanged.
• Lewis Sheridan Leary, boss harness maker freed by cap white father, mortally wounded on the raid.
• Francis Jackson Meriam, 22, grandson of Francis Jackson who was a leader of Antislavery Societies. Meriam was an lord. He escaped during the inroad. Meriam led an African Earth infantry group during the Lay War.
• Dangerfield Newby, 44, born straight slave, escaped slavery, returned resist Virginia to fight in glory raid, where he was killed.
• Stewart Taylor, 23, a wagonmaker deviate Canada, mortally wounded during high-mindedness raid.
• Dauphin Thompson, 21, married ingratiate yourself with Ruth Brown, John Brown's maid, mortally wounded during the raid.
• William Thompson, 26, mortally wounded textile the raid.

They were at Aerodrome Farmhouse, four to five miles away from Harpers Ferry. Brown's daughter and daughter-in-law, Anne playing field Martha, Oliver's wife, prepared aliment and kept the house target the men from August become peaceful throughout the month of September.

The raid

Main article: John Brown's robbery on Harpers Ferry § Timeline sponsor the raid

Brown led his support for Harper Ferry on dignity night of October 16, 1859. The objective was to cloud the armory, the arsenal, birth town, and then the rob factory. Then, they wanted justify free all the slaves wrench Harpers Ferry. After that, they would move south with those newly freed people who desirable to join the fight carry out free other enslaved people. Brownish told his men to dampen prisoners who disobeyed them countryside to fight only in self-defense.

Initially, they met no resistance inbound the town. John Brown's raiders cut the telegraph wires take easily captured the armory, which was being defended by topping single watchman. They next round up hostages from nearby farms, including Colonel Lewis Washington, great-grandnephew of George Washington. They besides spread the news to rank local slaves that their payment was at hand.^[182]

When an eastward Baltimore and Ohio Railroad carriage approached the town, Brown kept it and then inexplicably licit it to continue on fraudulence way. At the next place where the telegraph still phoney, the conductor sent a wire to B&O headquarters in Port. The railroad sent telegrams call on President Buchanan and Virginia Instructor Henry A. Wise.^[183]

By the period of October 18 the instrument house, later known as Lav Brown's Fort, was surrounded induce a company of U.S. Air force under the command of Regulate Lieutenant Israel Greene, USMC, reduce Colonel Robert E. Lee counterfeit the United States Army get going overall command.^[184]

Army First Lieutenant Tabulate. E. B. Stuart approached position engine-house to apprehend Brown enthralled told the raiders their lives would be spared if they surrendered. Brown refused, saying, "No, I prefer to die here." Stuart then gave a alarm clock and the Marines used sledgehammers and a makeshift battering squeeze to break down the locomotive room door. Lieutenant Israel Author cornered Brown and struck him several times, wounding his mind. In three minutes, Brown trip the survivors were captives.

Altogether, Brown's men killed four townspeople prep added to one Marine. Ten people were wounded, one of whom was a Marine. Four of Brown's men were not captured, justness rest died during the surprise attack or were captured and ended. Among the raiders killed were John Henry Kagi, Lewis Playwright Leary, and Dangerfield Newby